* 


THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 

370 
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no.  36-47 


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L161-H41 


UNIVERSITY  OF   ILLINOIS   BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXIV  October  5,  1926  No.  5 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912.  Acceptance  for  mailing  at  the  special  rate  of  postage  provided  for  in 
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EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  46 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


HOW  TO  MAKE  COURSES  OF  STUDY 
IN  THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

By 
M.  E.  Herriott 

Associate,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


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PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  I.    Introduction 5 

Chapter  II.  Tendencies  in  the  Social  Studies 7 

Chapter  III.   Function  and  Plan  of  Courses  of  Study 23 

Chapter  IV.  Content  of  Courses  of  Study  in  the  Social  Studies  27 

Bibliography.    Selected  and  Annotated 42 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/howtomakecourses46herr 


HOW  TO  MAKE  COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  THE 
SOCIAL  STUDIES1 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

Purpose  of  circular.  The  purpose  of  this  circular  is  to  describe  a 
technique  of  preparing  courses  of  study  in  the  social  studies  and  to  give 
suggestions  as  to  their  content  and  organization  for  both  the  elementary 
and  secondary  school.  "The  social  studies  are  understood  to  be  those 
whose  subject-matter  relates  directly  to  the  organization  and  develop- 
ment of  human  society,  and  to  man  as  a  member  of  social  groups." 
They  "differ  from  other  studies  by  reason  of  their  social  content  rather 
than  in  social  aim;  for  the  keynote  of  modern  education  is  'social  effi- 
ciency,' and  instruction  in  all  subjects  should  contribute  to  this  end."2 
The  fields  from  which  the  subject-matter  of  the  social  studies  is  taken 
are  history,  government,  economics,  sociology,  and  geography.  Within 
these  general  fields  of  study  a  great  variety  of  school  subjects  is  found. 
The  following  enumeration  includes  most  of  the  courses  which  are  com- 
monly classified  as  social  studies:  civics  (including  community,  modern, 
and  vocational),  economics  (including  modern  and  vocational),  sociol- 
ogy (including  modern  social  problems,  problems  of  democracy,  social 
science,  general  social  science,  social  psychology,  rural  sociology,  social 
ethics,  modern  problems,  and  ethics  of  citizenship),  elementary  law, 
current  events,  American,  European,  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern 
history,  and  geography  (including  commercial  and  local). 

No  attempt  is  made  in  this  circular  to  present  courses  of  study  in 
any  of  these  subjects.  The  purpose  is  merely  to  tell  how  the  work  of 
making  courses  of  study  for  such  subjects  may  be  carried  on  and  what 
their  characteristics  should  be  when  completed.  A  number  of  the  better 
courses  of  study  in  the  social  studies  are  referred  to  as  examples  of  good 
practices. 


details  of  the  form  of  educational  writing  are  not  discussed  in  this  circular.  For 
such  matters  consult: 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Johnston,  Nell  Bomar.  "Reporting  educational  re- 
search." University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  38,  Bureau  of  Educational  Re- 
search Bulletin  No.  25.    Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1925.    63  p. 

2Dunn,  Arthur  William  (compiled  by).  "The  social  studies  in  secondary  edu- 
cation."   U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1916,  No.  28.    Washington,  1916,  p.  9. 

[5] 


Relation  of  this  circular  to  others  on  course-of-study  making.3 

This  is  the  fourth  of  a  series  of  circulars  on  course-of-study  making. 
The  first  deals  with  the  general  problem  of  organizing  for  course-of- 
study  making.  The  second  and  third  give  detailed  directions  for  pre- 
paring courses  of  study  in  arithmetic  and  reading,  respectively.  This 
circular  presents  similar  directions  for  preparing  courses  of  study  in  the 
social  studies. 

x\rithmetic  and  reading  are  "tool"  subjects  as  contrasted  with  the 
social  studies,  which  are  essentially  "content"  subjects.  The  former  are 
taught  in  the  elementary  grades  almost  exclusively,  but  the  latter  are 
taught  in  every  grade  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  divisions  of  our 
school  system.  Because  of  these  and  other  reasons  it  must  be  recognized 
that  there  are  fundamental  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  objectives, 
the  methods  of  instruction,  the  types  of  learning  exercises,  and  so  forth, 
between  arithmetic  and  reading  on  the  one  hand  and  the  social  studies 
on  the  other.  Such  distinctions  make  it  desirable  to  have  a  separate 
circular  dealing  with  the  peculiarities  of  courses  of  study  in  the  social 
studies. 

Plan  of  circular.  Three  major  topics  are  discussed  in  the  following 
pages.  First,  in  order  to  provide  a  proper  background,  the  tendencies 
that  are  evident  in  the  organization  and  teaching  of  the  social  studies 
in  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  are  briefly  described.  Second,  in 
order  to  make  clear  the  more  recent  developments  in  course-of-study 
making,  the  function  and  plan  of  modern  courses  of  study  in  general 
are  considered.  Third,  there  is  a  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the  content 
of  courses  of  study  in  the  social  studies  and  the  way  in  which  this  con- 
tent should  be  formulated.  At  the  end  of  the  circular  there  is  a  bibliog- 
raphy made  up  of  references  that  have  been  selected  because  of  their 
pertinence  to  the  work  of  those  who  make  courses  of  study  in  the  social 
studies.  Throughout  the  circular  reference  is  made  to  sources  where 
points  under  discussion  are  more  fully  or  somewhat  differently  developed 
and  also  where  examples  may  be  found  of  ways  in  which  the  ideas  pre- 
sented herein  have  been  incorporated  in  courses  of  study. 


3The  three  circulars  previously  written,  in  the  order  of  their  publication,  are: 

Moxroe,  Walter  S.  "Making  a  course  of  study."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin. 
Vol.  23,  Xo.  2.  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  35.  Urbana:  University 
of  Illinois.  1925.     35  p. 

Herriott,  M.  E.  ';How  to  make  a  course  of  study  in  arithmetic."  University  of 
Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  6.  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  Xo.  37.  Ur- 
bana: University  of  Illinois.  1925.     50  p. 

Herriott,  M.  E.  '"How  to  make  a  course  of  study  in  reading."  University  of 
Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  2i,  Xo.  18,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  Xo.  42.  Ur- 
bana: University  of  Illinois,  1926.     37  p. 

[6] 


CHAPTER  II 
TENDENCIES  IN  THE  SOCIAL  STUDIES4 

Because  of  a  variety  of  forces  that  are  being  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  social  studies,  numerous  changes,  many  of  which  are  fundamental, 
are  occurring  at  a  comparatively  rapid  rate.  These  changes  are  so 
widely  distributed  and  exhibit  definitely  discernible  common  tendencies 
to  such  a  degree  that  we  are  justified  in  dignifying  them  by  the  term 
"movement."  This  movement  is  closely  linked  up  with  some  of  the 
major  tendencies  in  the  general  field  of  education.  First,  the  trends  in 
the  social  studies  are  greatly  influenced  by,  and  are  mostly  in  accord 
with,  the  so-called  scientific  movement  in  education  which  has  taken 
shape  within  recent  years.  Its  chief  characteristic  may  be  said  to  be 
an  effort  to  deal  with  the  problems  of  education  as  objectively  as  pos- 
sible. Second,  tendencies  in  the  social  studies  evidence  the  influence  of 
the  broader  efforts  to  make  education  fit  individuals  more  effectively  for 
participation  in  life  (out-of-school)  activities.  Third,  a  correlative  of  the 
second,  the  tendency  is  manifested  in  the  social  studies  not  only  to  make 
those  things  learned  in  school  function  in  life  situations  but  also  to  make 
them  influence  life  conditions.  Fourth,  other  tendencies  of  a  somewhat 
less  fundamental  character,  such  as  the  problem  and  project  methods 
and  adaptation  of  courses  to  local  conditions,  are  having  their. influence 
on  the  social  studies. 

The  tendencies  in  the  social  studies  may  be  grouped  under  three 
major  divisions:  (1)  a  shift  in  emphasis  from  certain  types  of  outcomes 
to  other  types,   (2)  changes  in  methods  of  determining  outcomes,  de- 


4No  attempt  is  made  to  give  a  complete  resume  of  past  developments  in  the  or- 
ganization and  teaching  of  the  social  studies,  but  rather  the  purpose  is  to  indicate  the 
more  significant  tendencies  that  are  evident  today.    For  more  elaborate  discussions,  see: 

Dawson,  Edgar.  "The  social  studies  in  civic  education."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation Bulletin,  1923,  No.  23.    Washington,  1923.     16  p. 

Rugg,  Earle.  "How  the  current  courses  in  history,  geography,  and  civics  came 
to  be  what  they  are."  Twenty-Second  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1923, 
p.  48-75. 

Shiels,  Albert.  "The  social  studies  in  development,"  Teachers  College  Record, 
23:126-45,  March,  1922. 

For  the  status  of  the  social  studies  in  high  schools,  see: 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Foster,  I.  0.  "The  status  of  the  social  sciences  in  the 
high  schools  of  the  North  Central  Association."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  20, 
No.  18,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  13.  Urbana:  University  of  Illi- 
nois, 1922.    38  p. 

[7] 


sirable  pupil  experiences,  and  directive  procedures,  and  (3)  changes  in 
pupil  experiences,  and  stimulative  and  directive  procedures.5  Each  of 
these  is  elaborated  upon  in  the  following  pages. 

1.  Types  of  outcomes.  Formal  education  is  primarily  concerned 
with  engendering  controls  of  conduct  by  means  of  consciously  directed 
experiences.  The  outcomes  of  learning  may  be  classified  as  (1)  specific 
habits,  (2)  knowledge  and  (3)  general  patterns  of  conduct.6  Specific 
habits  are  "fixed"  controls,  knowledge  outcomes  are  "adaptive"  controls, 
and  general  patterns  of  conduct  partake  of  the  nature  of  both  "fixed" 
and  "adaptive"  controls  of  conduct.  These  distinctions  are  developed 
somewhat  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Specific  habits.  "A  specific  habit  is  an  acquired  control  of  conduct 
which  results  in  unvarying  response  to  a  given  stimulus."7  Thus,  one 
who  has  appropriate  specific  habits,  mostly  fixed  associations  in  the 
social  studies,  is  able  to  answer  automatically  such  questions  as:  When 
was  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  fought?  Where?  Who  were  the  opposing 
generals?  Which  side  won?  What  famous  speech  was  made  later  on 
this  battle  field?   Who  is  the  present  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States 


5The  term  "pupil  experiences"  is  used  in  this  circular  to  include  the  total  activity 
of  pupils  in  doing  learning  exercises  or  in  realizing  their  own  purposes.  The  learning 
exercises  that  are  assigned  determine  to  a  certain  extent  the  differences  in  pupil  experi- 
ence, as  for  instance,  "doing"  exercises  as  opposed  to  "reading"  exercises.  In  the  main, 
direct  experiences  are  had  in  the  former  and  indirect  or  vicarious  experiences  in  the 
latter.  However,  in  learning  exercises  which  involve  reading  as  the  chief  activity,  differ- 
ences in  experience  are  frequently  determined  not  so  much  by  the  learning  exercise 
assigned  as  by  the  content  of  the  material  read. 

The  term  "directive  procedures"  is  used  in  preference  to  teaching  technique  or 
method,  because  it  lacks  some  of  the  limiting  connotations  of  the  latter  terms  and  in 
addition  places  the  emphasis  upon  the  teacher's  function  of  directing  or  guiding  the 
learner.  "Directive  procedures"  include  all  those  things  which  teachers  do  in  directing 
or  guiding  the  learner,  such  as  formulating  learning  exercises,  giving  directions  for  work, 
evaluating  pupil  achievement,  diagnosing  difficulties,  giving  remedial  instruction,  and 
so  forth. 

6For  other  discussions  of  the  nature  of  these  classes  of  controls  of  conduct  see: 

Bagley,  William  C.  Educational  Values.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1911,  p.  14-77. 

Bagley,  William  C,  and  Keith,  John  A.  H.  An  Introduction  to  Teaching.  New 
York:  The  Macmillan  Company,  1924,  p.  210-61. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "Teachers'  Objectives."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol. 
23,  No.  39,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  45.  Urbana:  University  of 
Illinois,  1926,  p.  4-6. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "The  teacher's  responsibility  for  devising  learning  exercises 
in  arithmetic."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  41,  Bureau  of  Educational 
Research  Bulletin  No.  31,  1926,  p.  7-25. 

7Reagan,  George  William.  "Principles  relating  to  the  engendering  of  specific 
habits."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  5,  Bureau  of  Educational  Re- 
search Circular  No.  36.    Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1925,  p.  3. 

[8] 


Supreme  Court?  What  proportion  of  the  population  of  the  United  States 
is  urban?  All  of  the  responses  inferred  by  these  questions  are  of  the 
type  commonly  described  as  "memorized  facts."  Most  of  the  specific 
habits  of  the  social  studies  are  of  this  nature  as  contrasted  with  the  motor 
responses  of  typewriting,  handwriting,  manual  training,  and  the  oral 
phases  of  foreign  languages.8 

From  this  description,  it  is  evident  that  specific  habits  of  either  the 
motor  or  fixed-association  type  are  "fixed"  controls  inasmuch  as  they 
function  in  a  definite  way  to  given  stimuli  and  are  not  applicable  to 
varying  stimuli.9 

Knowledge.  Knowledge  outcomes  ("ideas,  concepts,  and  mean- 
ings") consist  of  "conscious  'controls'  which  may  serve  to  guide  conduct 
when  one  faces  situations  for  which  a  mechanized  habit-response  has 
not  been  developed."10  Included  in  this  category  are  ideas,  perceptual 
meanings,  concepts,  principles,  hypotheses,  laws,  and  similar  products 
of  experience  and  thought.  The  possession  of  such  controls  of  conduct 
implies  the  ability  to  use  them.  Hence,  in  describing  knowledge  one 
may  include  the  technique  of  generalizing,  of  forming  concepts,  and  of 
thinking  reflectively,  that  is,  of  dealing  with  knowledge.  Thus,  knowledge 
in  the  field  of  the  social  studies  includes  such  as  the  following:  knowing 
the  meaning  of  such  terms  as  democracy,  institution,  and  bureaucracy; 
understanding  the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  the  principles  underlying 
freedom  of  speech,  and  the  reasons  why  certain  types  of  industrial  de- 
velopment occur  where  they  do;  ability  to  formulate  generalizations 
from  adequate  and  appropriate  data;  ability  to  construct  clear  ideas  of 
things  about  which  one  reads  or  hears;  ability  to  follow  and  compre- 


8The  term  "skills"  is  also  applied  to  fixed  controls  of  conduct,  but  it  generally 
designates  groups  of  specific  habits,  usually  of  the  motor-response  type.  Skills,  in  this 
sense,  as  outcomes  of  instruction  in  the  social  studies  are  negligible  compared  with  mem- 
orized facts,  although  they  enter  to  a  limited  extent  into  (or  at  least  are  involved  in) 
such  activities  as  map  making. 

9This  does  not  mean  that  the  same  response  may  not  be  associated  with  several 
stimuli.  It  simply  means  that  if  such  is  the  case,  the  response  must  be  associated  with 
each  of  the  stimuli  individually,  that  a  given  response  will  not  result  unvaryingly  from 
a  given  stimulus  except  as  it  has  been  definitely  asscciated  with  that  stimulus. 

10Ba.gley,  William  C,  and  Keith,  John  A.  H.   Op.  cit.,  p.  241. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  differentiate  clearly  the  type  of  knowledge  designated  here 
from  the  popular  conception  which  includes  fixed  associations  under  the  term  "knowl- 
edge," that  is,  what  is  generally  thought  of  as  "information."  Examples  of  this  type 
of  so-called  knowledge  are:  knowing  that  two  plus  two  equal  four,  that  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  was  signed  July_4,  1776,  and  that  the  Battle  of  the  Argonne  was  an 
important  battle  of  the  World  War.  It  is  in  this  popular  sense  that  the  term  "knowl- 
edge" is  used  by  Herbert  Hoover  in  the  phrase,  "knowledge,  however  exact,  is  secondary 
to  a  trained  mind."    (School  Life,  11  :p.  4  of  cover,  April,  1926.) 

[9] 


hend  the  thinking  of  another;  and  ability  to  "manufacture"  responses 
to  new  situations  such  as  those  presented  by  thought  questions  like: 
Why  did  not  the  North  attempt  in  so  far  as  possible  to  preserve  intact 
the  institutions  of  the  South  after  the  Civil  War?  or,  What  is  the  rela- 
tion between  inventions  and  progress  in  the  United  States? 

This  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the  controls  of  conduct  classed  as 
knowledge  outcomes  makes  evident  their  "adaptive"  nature.  Such  con- 
trols function  in  a  great  variety  of  situations  in  contrast  to  the  "given 
stimulus"  necessary  to  the  functioning  of  a  specific  habit. 

General  patterns  of  conduct.  General  patterns  of  conduct  include 
ideals,  attitudes,  interests,  tastes,  appreciations,  perspectives,  prejudices, 
and  similar  controls  of  conduct,  the  three  major  classes  being  ideals, 
attitudes,  and  interests  and  tastes.  General  patterns  of  conduct  are 
characterized  by  the  feeling  of  worth  which  they  embody,  although 
there  may  or  may  not  be  a  reasoned  acceptance  of  the  pattern. 

Ideals  are  highly  emotionalized.  Many  of  them  function  as  ends 
or  purposes  and  frequently  are  referred  to  as  "emotionalized  standards 
of  conduct."  Ideals  of  service  to  others,  of  liberty,  and  of  patriotism 
may  be  engendered,  at  least  in  part,  by  the  social  studies.  When  the 
ideal  of  service  to  others  has  been  engendered,  the  pupil  will  have  in 
addition  to  an  idea  of  what  it  means  to  be  of  service  to  others  a  feeling 
of  its  worth,  an  impelling  desire  which  will  exert  a  directive  influence 
over  his  conduct  toward  that  end. 

Attitudes  determine  the  manner  in  which  situations  are  interpreted 
rather  than  the  end  of  conduct  as  do  ideals.  Some  attitudes,  such  as 
prejudices,  may  appear  to  be  even  more  highly  emotionalized  than  many 
ideals,  and  other  attitudes,  such  as  mental  sets,  points  of  view,  and  per- 
spectives, color  reactions  to  situations  but  contain  little  of  the  emotional 
element.  Upton  and  Chassell11  have  described  in  part  the  behavior 
of  one  who  has  the  attitude  of  loyalty  in  the  elementary  school  in  the 
following  terms: 

1.  Respects  those  in  authority. 

2.  Takes  pride. in  his  group  and  in  the  school,  and  tries  to  foster 

the  right  kind  of  spirit. 

3.  Expresses  loyalty  by  removing  his  hat  when  the  flag  is  presented 

or  when  the  national  anthem  is  sung. 

4.  Honors  those  who  have  rendered  distinguished  service. 


"Upton,  Siegfried  Maia,  and  Chassell,  Clara  Frances.  "A  scale  for  measur- 
ing the  importance  of  habits  of  good  citizenship."  Teachers  College  Bulletin,  Twelfth 
Series,  No.  9.  New  York:  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  January-  1,  1921,  p.  40. 
(Reprinted  from  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  20,  January,  1919.) 

[10] 


Interests  and  tastes  are  more  closely  related  to  attitudes  than  to 
ideals  in  that  they  also  determine  the  manner  in  which  situations  are 
interpreted.  For  example,  the  behavior  of  one  who  has  an  interest  in 
biography  may  be  described  in  part  by  the  following: 

1.  The  mention  in  his  presence  of  a  biographical  work  readily  at- 

tracts his  attention. 

2.  He  keeps  informed  on  new  publications  of  biography. 

3.  He  reads  biographical  accounts  as  part  of  his  leisure  reading. 
From  the  preceding  discussion,  it  is  evident  that  general  patterns 

of  conduct  partake  a  little  of  the  nature  of  "fixed"  controls  of  conduct 
and  a  little  of  the  "adaptive"  controls.  They  are  applicable  to  a  multi- 
tude of  situations,  yet  they  specify  within  limits  what  the  nature  of  the 
response  will  be.  Thus,  one  who  is  "radical"  in  his  attitude  reacts  to 
most  situations  in  a  characteristic  way  which  is  easily  differentiated  from 
the  reaction  characteristic  of  one  who  is  "conservative"  in  his  attitude. 
Summary.  The  preceding  paragraphs  may  be  appropriately  sum- 
marized by  the  following  outline  of  objectives.12 

I.  Fixed  Controls  of  conduct  (specific  habits) 

A.  Motor  skills 

B.  Fixed  associations 

II.  Adaptive  controls  of  conduct  (knowledge) 

A.  Perceptual  or  relatively  concrete  meanings 

B.  Generalizations 

1.  Concepts 

2.  Principles 

C.  Techniques  of  dealing  with  knowledge1" 
III.  General  patterns  of  conduct  (generalized  controls) 

A.  Ideals 

B.  Attitudes 

C.  Interests  and  tastes 

Ultimate  and  immediate  objectives.  From  another  point  of  view, 
objectives  may  be  classified  as  ultimate  and  immediate  on  the  basis  of 
their  remoteness  and  proximity  to  the  learner's  activity,  and  as  general 
and  specific  on  the  basis  of  their  explicitness  of  description  of  the  ends 


"Taken  in  the  main  from: 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "Teachers'  objectives."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol. 
23,  No.  39,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  45.  Urbana:  University  of 
Illinois,  1926,  p.  9. 

"The  writer  is  aware  that  acceptance  of  this  idea  involves  acceptance  of  certain 
of  the  more  traditional  aspects  of  the  theory  of  formal  discipline.  However,  the  position 
that  there  are  such  techniques  seems  highly  defensible. 

[11] 


to  be  attained.  In  the  content  subjects,  such  as  the  social  studies,  it  is 
particularly  helpful  to  view  the  objectives  as  ultimate  and  immediate, 
recognizing  that  there  exist  intermediate  degrees  between  the  extremes 
of  remoteness  and  nearness  to  the  learner's  activity. 

The  most  immediate  objectives  are  often  spoken  of  as  "lesson 
aims,"  which  generally  incorporate  the  idea  of  completing  a  task.  This 
idea  is  prominent  in  assignments  of  the  "take-pages-so-and-so"  type. 
A  more  typical  example  may  be  taken  from  the  plan  of  a  lesson  in 
American  history.  The  aim  was  stated  thus:  "To  show  how  the  problem 
of  Reconstruction  was  attacked  and  the  part  that  political  rivalry  played 
in  its  early  stages  of  solution."14  Completion  of  the  task  designated  is 
an  objective  to  be  attained,  but  in  turn  it  becomes  only  a  means  to  a 
slightly  more  removed  objective,  the  acquisition  of  an  ability.  For  in- 
stance, completion  of  this  task  may  contribute  in  part  to  engendering 
the  fixed  associations  which  will  enable  the  possessor  to  make  a  proper 
and  adequate  response  to  the  question:  What  was  Congress'  plan  of 
Reconstruction?  It  may  contribute  in  part  to  engendering  the  knowledge 
needed  to  solve  the  problem :  How  might  valuable  use  have  been  made 
of  the  social  resources  of  the  South  in  solving  the  problems  of  Recon- 
struction? Or,  realization  of  this  lesson  aim  may  contribute  to  engen- 
dering certain  general  patterns  of  conduct  such  as  the  attitude  of  fair- 
mindedness  toward  political  issues.  None  of  these  abilities  is  as  close 
to  the  learner's  activity  as  is  completion  of  the  task  stipulated  in  the 
lesson  aim,  yet  each  of  them,  relatively  speaking,  is  an  immediate 
objective.15 

Two  levels  of  immediate  objectives  are  thus  identified:  first,  the 
accomplishment  of  tasks,  and  second,  the  attainment  of  abilities.  How- 
ever, any  enumeration  of  such  tasks  and  abilities  will  contain  many 
variations  in  degree  of  nearness  to  the  learner's  activity. 


"Monroe,  Walter  S.  "The  planning  of  teaching."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin, 
Vol.  22,  No.  7,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  31.  Urbana:  University 
of  Illinois,  1924,  p.  17. 

15It  is  not  necessary  to  state  lesson  aims  in  terms  of  tasks  rather  than  in  terms  of 
abilities  to  be  acquired.  In  fact,  wherever  feasible  it  is  preferable  to  state  lesson  aims 
or  immediate  objectives  of  lessons  in  terms  of  abilities  to  be  acquired,  for  the  attention 
of  both  pupil  and  teacher,  in  so  far  as  possible,  should  be  centered  upon  the  ability  to 
be  attained  rather  than  upon  the  task  to  be  done.  For  example,  a  lesson  aim  in  Amer- 
ican history  might  be  stated:  To  memorize  the  names  of  the  presidents  from  Washing- 
ton to  Jackson,  with  the  dates  of  their  administrations  and  their  party  affiliations.  A 
simple  change  of  wording  would  shift  the  emphasis  from  the  doing  of  the  task  to  the 
specific  habit  to  be  engendered.  A  statement  of  the  lesson  aim  from  this  point  of 
view  would  be:  Ability  to  repeat  without  error  the  names  of  the  presidents  from  Wash- 
ington to  Jackson,  with  the  dates  of  their  administrations  and  their  party  affiliations. 

[12] 


But  even  the  more  remote  immediate  objectives  are  only  means  to 
the  attainment  of  others  still  more  remote  which  may  be  appropriately 
called  ultimate  objectives.  The  term  "ultimate"  carries  with  it  a  double 
connotation;  first,  remoteness,  in  this  instance  remoteness  from  the 
learner's  activity,  and  second,  finality,  that  is,  an  end  that  is  an  end  in 
itself  and  not  one  which  merely  becomes  a  means  to  another  end.  How- 
ever, two  types  of  ultimate  objectives  may  be  distinguished  on  the  basis 
of  the  points  of  view  from  which  they  are  formulated.  From  one  point 
of  view  ultimate  objectives  are  stated  in  terms  descriptive  of  future  be- 
havior or  characteristics  of  individuals  or  of  groups.  \Six  of  the  seven 
objectives  of  secondary  education  promulgated  by  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association  are  of  this  nature — health,  command  of  fundamental 
processes,  worthy  home  membership,  vocation,  citizenship,  worthy  use 
of  leisure,  and  ethical  character/]  The  second  objective  can  scarcely  be 
considered  as  ultimate,  but  is  rather  a  general  statement  of  an  immedi- 
ate objective.  Formulated  from  another  point  of  view,  ultimate  objec- 
tives have  to  do  with  the  performance  of  duties  or  occasions  for  the  use 
of  abilities.  We  speak  of  education  for  citizenship  and  in  so  doing  imply 
that  the  ultimate  objectives  of  education  are  the  performance  of  the 
duties  of  citizenship.16  The  three  aims  of  secondary  education  as  stated 
by  Inglis17  are  formulated  from  the  point  of  view  of  occasion  for  the  use 
of  abilities.    They  are: 

1.  The  social-civic  aim,  which  "involves  the  preparation  of 
individuals  for  efficient  participation  in  those  activities  of  society 
whose  controlling  purpose  and  primary  object  are  desirable  forms 
of  social  cooperation." 

2.  The  economic-vocational  aim,  which  "involves  the  prepara- 
ration  of  the  individual  for  efficient  participation  in  those  activities 
of  society  whose  controlling  purpose  and  primary  object  involve 
economic  efficiency." 

3.  The  individualistic-avocational  aim,  which  "involves  the 
preparation  of  the  individual  for  those  activities  of  life  whose  pri- 
mary object  and  controlling  purpose  are  personal  development  and 
personal  happiness  through  the  worthy  use  of  leisure." 

In  resume,  we  may  say  that  the  distinction  between  immediate  and 
ultimate  objectives  is  on  the  basis  of  ends  and  means  as  well  as  on  the 


10The  method  used  for  determining  such  objectives  is  known  as  "job  analysis"  or 
"activity  analysis."     For  an  account  of  this  method,  see: 

Charters,  W.  W.  Curriculum  Construction.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1923.   352  p. 

"Inglis,  Alexander.  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.  Boston:  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1918,  p.  367-75. 

[13] 


degree  of  remoteness  and  nearness  to  the  learner's  activity.  Although 
immediate  objectives  are  ends  to  be  gained,  they  are  also  means  to 
ever  increasingly  remote  ends.  The  most  remote  of  these  ends  are  ulti- 
mate objectives,  being  ends  in  themselves  without  being  means  to  further 
ends.  These  two  major  classes  of  objectives  may  be  summarized  as 
follows:18 

1.  Learning  activity.  This  type  of  objective  is  usually  de- 
scribed   in   terms    of   learning    exercises    to    be    done    or 

Immediate    J  "ground-to-be-covered." 

Objectives  2.  Abilities  to  be  engendered.  When  objectives  are 
thought  of  in  terms  of  "abilities  to  be  engendered,"  the 
doing  of  exercises  becomes  a  means  to  this  end. 

3.  Future  behavior  described  in  general  terms.  Using 
such  words  as  citizenship,  character,  culture,  and  so  forth. 

4.  Duties  or  occasions  for  the  use  of  abilities.  The  rela- 
Ultimate  J  tjon  between  duties  and  "future  behavior"  may  be  de- 
Objectives  ]  scribed  by  saying  that  the  terms,  such  as  character,  citi- 
zenship, social  efficiency,  and  so  forth  used  in  describing 
future  behavior  specify  in  a  general  way  how  the  duties  of 
adult  life  are  to  be  performed. 

General  and  specific  objectives.  Both  ultimate  and  immediate  ob- 
jectives may  be  phrased  with  varying  degrees  of  generality  and  spe- 
cificity, but  the  inclusiveness  or  explicitness  of  statement  does  not  to 
any  appreciable  extent  determine  the  ultimateness  or  immediateness 
of  an  objective.  Thus,  to  know  all  the  presidents  of  the  United  States 
is  more  general  in  phraseology  than  to  know  the  names  of  all  the  presi- 
dents of  the  United  States  and  their  party  affiliations,  with  the  dates  of 
their  administrations,  but  in  no  sense  is  the  former  more  nearly  an 
ultimate  objective.  Or  as  a  further  illustration,  to  engender  a  love  for 
historical  readings  is  a  general  statement  of  an  immediate  aim  which 
might  be  made  specific  by  stating  some  of  the  particular  historical 
readings  for  which  a  love  should  be  engendered,  and  by  defining  "love." 

As  a  rule,  ultimate  objectives  are  stated  with  a  high  degree  of  gen- 
erality, as  for  example  the  seven  objectives  of  secondary  education  set 
up  by  the  National  Education  Association.  Immediate  objectives  are 
more  frequently  stated  in  specific  terms,  or  at  least  a  greater  degree  of 
specificity  is  attempted  in  setting  up  immediate  objectives. 


^Monroe,  Walter  S.  'Teachers'  Objectives.*'  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin, 
Vol.  23,  No.  39,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  45.  Urbana:  University 
of  Illinois,  1926,  p.  8. 


[14] 


Trend  of  objectives  in  the  social  studies.  A  rather  extended  dis- 
cussion of  objectives  has  been  given  in  order  that  a  clear  conception 
might  be  had  of  the  different  ways  in  which  objectives  are  conceived 
and  stated.  Present  practices  in  formulating  objectives  in  the  social 
studies  exhibit  three  major  trends:  first,  to  emphasize  the  knowledge 
outcomes  and  general  patterns  of  conduct  in  contrast  to  former  emphasis 
upon  specific  habits  of  the  fixed-association  type;  second,  to  formulate 
immediate  objectives  in  as  specific  terms  as  possible  rather  than  merely 
to  formulate  ultimate  objectives  stated  in  general  terms;  and  third,  to 
discover  objectives  by  means  of  scientific  techniques  rather  than  to  base 
them  upon  opinion  alone. 

The  emphasis  upon  knowledge  outcomes  and  general  patterns  of 
conduct  is  illustrated  in  the  basic  objectives  that  control  the  construction 
of  the  program  in  social  science  in  the  University  of  Chicago  High 
School.  As  expressed  by  Hill,19  they  are:  "First,  the  development  in 
boys  and  girls  of  social  attitudes  and  social  behaviors;  second,  the  incul- 
cation in  pupils  of  an  understanding  of  the  social  environment  in  which 
they  live,  its  character,  its  needs,  and  its  problems."  However,  emphasis 
upon  such  outcomes  does  not  obviate  the  necessity  for  engendering 
specific  habits,  particularly  fixed  associations,  a  large  number  of  which 
are  fundamental  to  adequate  development  of  the  more  adaptive  controls. 
It  is  frequently  said  that  the  principal  object  of  instruction  in  content 
subjects  is  to  teach  pupils  to  think,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a 
certain  amount  of  information  with  which  to  think  is  necessary. 

Although  there  is  a  tendency  to  formulate  immediate  objectives  in 
as  specific  terms  as  possible  rather  than  merely  to  formulate  ultimate 
objectives  stated  in  general  terms,  relatively  little  progress  has  been  made 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  the  task,  undeveloped  techniques,  and  similar 
conditions.  In  the  main,  only  the  more  simple  phases  of  the  problem 
of  formulating  specific  immediate  objectives  have  been  attacked  by  in- 
vestigators. Such  investigations  as  have  been  made  have  dealt  mostly 
with  the  fixed  associations  to  be  established.  The  investigations  of 
Washburne,  Bassett,  and  Bagley20  are  illustrative  of  attempts  to  deter- 


19"The  nation  at  work  on  the  public  school  curriculum."  Fourth  Yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence.  Washington:  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the 
National  Education  Association,  1926,  p.  368. 

20Washburne,  Carleton  W.  "Building  a  fact  course  in  history  and  geography." 
Twenty-Second  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  II. 
Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,   1923,  p.  99-110. 

Washburne,  Carleton  W.  "Basic  facts  needed  in  history  and  geography;  a  sta- 
tistical investigation."   Twenty-Second  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 

[15] 


mine  objectives.  The  following  statement  of  the  attainments  which  sev- 
enth-grade pupils  should  achieve  in  studying  South  America  illustrates 
an  attempt  by  course-of-study  makers  to  state  immediate  objectives  in 
as  specific  terms  as  possible.  Certain  inconsistencies  and  weaknesses 
appear,  but,  as  a  pioneer  attempt,  the  list  is  worthy  of  consideration.21 
Attainments. 

A.  Minimum. 

1.  To  know  the  relative  position  of  South  America  as  related 
to  North  America. 

2.  To  know  two  principal  highlands,  three  great  plains  and 
three  great  rivers  draining  these  plains. 

3.  A  brief  survey  of  the  A.  B.  C.  countries. 

4.  To  name  the  leading  industrial  activities  and  center  of  each 
of  three  other  countries. 

5.  To  know  that  South  America  and  the  United  States  have 
seasons  that  are  opposite  from  point  of  time,  and  to  know 
chief  cause  for  this. 

6.  To  know  location  of  Panama  Canal  and  bodies  of  water  it 
connects;  and  that  canal  is  owned  and  controlled  by  United 
States. 

B.  Average. 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  South  America,  place  the  surface  re- 
gions, three  highest  mountain  peaks,  principal  river  systems> 
and  five  important  sea  ports. 

2.  Study  intensively  the  A.  B.  C.  countries. 

3.  Name  the  other  countries  and  give  their  approximate 
location. 

4.  An  intensive  study  of  two  important  products  of  South 
America. 

5.  To  know  the  leading  industry  of  the  minor  countries  with 
its  important  trade  center  and  why  such  industry  is  impor- 
tant. 


of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1923,. 
p.  216-33. 

Bassett,  B.  B.  "The  content  of  the  course  of  study  in  civics."  Seventeenth  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois: 
Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1918,  p.  63-80. 

Marston,  L.  R.,  McKown,  H.  C,  and  Bagley,  W.  C.  "A  method  of  determining 
misplacements  of  emphasis  in  seventh  and  eighth-grade  history."  Seventeenth  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois: 
Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1918,  p.  90-96. 

""Geography  and  science — secondary  course  of  study."  Trenton,  New  Jersey: 
Board  of  Education,  1923,  p.  30-31. 

[16] 


6.  To  know  the  two  cities  at  the  extremities  of  the  Panama 
Canal   and  the  value  of  the  canal  for  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  South  America. 
C.  Maximum. 

1.  To  be  able  to  appreciate  the  future  possibilities  of  South 
America. 

2.  To  know  how  surface  and  climatic  conditions  have  affected 
the  development  of  the  leading  countries  of  South  America. 

3.  To  appreciate  why  the  United  States  should  become  better 
acquainted  with  South  America  and  develop  trade  relations 
with  her. 

4.  Value  of  the  Panama  Canal  as  a  world  highway  of  trade. 

5.  Give  several  results  of  the  earth's  rotation. 

6.  To  explain  the  cause  of  the  change  of  seasons. 

The  tendency  to  discover  objectives  in  so  far  as  possible  rather 
than  to  base  them  upon  opinion  alone  is  not  discussed  at  this  point  but 
is  taken  up  in  the  following  paragraphs  since  it  is  intimately  related  to 
the  tendencies  in  methods  of  determining  pupil  experiences  and  direc- 
tive procedures. 

2.  Methods  of  determining  outcomes,  pupil  experiences,  and  direc- 
tive procedures.  A  reciprocal  cause  and  effect  relationship  exists  between 
the  types  of  outcomes  emphasized  and  the  methods  of  determining  what 
these  outcomes  should  be.  It  cannot  be  said  that  one  follows  the  other, 
for  each  develops  as  the  other  progresses.  However,  they  may  be  dis- 
cussed separately.  A  similar  relationship  exists  between  the  pupil  ex- 
periences provided,  the  directive  procedures  used  by  the  teachers,  and 
the  methods  employed  in  determining  what  these  experiences  and  pro- 
cedures should  be. 

The  changes  in  methods  of  determining  outcomes,  pupil  experiences, 
and  directive  procedures  are  closely  related,  being  a  part  of  the  so-called 
scientific  movement  in  education.    The  newer  methods  of  determining 
outcomes,  experiences,  and  procedures  are  characterized  in  the  main  by 
a  critical  attitude  toward  present  practices  and  objectivity  of  data  in 
determining  what  should  be.    Tryon22  identifies  the  following  fourteen 
methods  of  determining  the  content  of  social  studies. 
I.  Analysis  of  political  party  platforms. 
II.  Securing  the  judgments  of  representative  citizens  and  groups 
of  citizens. 


22Tryon,  R.  M.    "History  and  the  other  social  studies  in  junior  and  senior  high 
school — a  general  survey  and  criticism,"  The  Historical  Outlook,  17:213-19,  May,  1926. 
An  excellent  bibliography  for  each  of  the  techniques  is  given. 

[17  J 


III.  Analysis    of    newspapers,    periodicals,    magazines,    readers' 
guides,  and  indexes  to  periodical  literature. 

IV.  Pooling  of  opinion  of  leading  authorities  by  means  of  ques- 
tionnaire method. 

V.  Analysis  of  textbooks  in  history  and  the  other  social  studies. 
VI.  Analysis  of  books  (other  than  texts)  in  sociology,  economics, 
and  political  science. 
VII.  Analysis  of  courses  of  study  in  history  and  other  social  studies. 
VIII.  Analysis  of  subject-matter  outside  the  social  studies  field. 
IX.  Pooling  the  opinion  of  experts  through  committee  reports. 
X.  Analysis  of  examination  questions  in  history. 
XI.  Searching  for  references  that  one  is  apt  to  meet  in  contem- 
porary life  as  revealed  in  best  sellers,  short  stories,  jokes, 
comic  pictures  in  newspapers,  and  legends  of  movie  picture 
shows. 
XII.  Determining  the  civic   activities   that  laymen   actually   per- 
form in  the  course  of  their  daily  life. 

XIII.  Analysis  of  encyclopedias  for  material  in  the  social  aspects 
of  life. 

XIV.  Setting  up  specific  objectives  and  principles  and  seeking  sub- 
ject-matter to  satisfy  them. 

In  one  of  the  Research  Bulletins  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation, seven  approaches  to  curriculum  building  are  briefly  described 
and  commented  upon.23  Most  of  the  techniques  mentioned  in  these  two 
references  have  to  do  with  the  determination  of  objectives  and  content. 
However,  some  of  them  are  also  applicable  to  the  determination  of 
teaching  procedures.  The  principal  characteristic  of  the  techniques  that 
have  been  developed  is  the  attempt  to  be  objective,  perhaps  to  an  un- 
justifiable extreme  in  some  instances. 

3.  Pupil  experiences  and  directive  procedures.  The  trends  in  pupil 
experiences  and  directive  procedures  are  evidenced  by  the  changes  in: 
(a)  the  content  and  number  of  subjects  offered  in  the  social  studies 
group,  (b)  the  correlations  between  the  social  studies  and  other  school 
subjects,  (c)  the  relation  of  the  social  studies  to  extra-curricular  activi- 
ties, (d)  the  adaptations  to  local  conditions,  and  (e)  the  influence  of 
such  variations  in  procedures  as  the  problem  and  project  methods  and 
motivation. 


^''Keeping  pace  with  the  advancing  curriculum."  Research  Bulletin  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  Vol.  3,  Nos.  4  and  5.  Washington:  Research  Division  of  the 
National  Education  Association,  1925,  p.  116-17. 


[18] 


a.  Content  and  number  of  courses  offered.  As  previously  denned 
in  this  circular,  the  social  studies  are  those  which  relate  directly  to  the 
organization  and  development  of  human  society,  and  to  man  as  a  mem- 
ber of  social  groups.  A  wide  variety  of  individual  courses  are  designated 
as  social  studies,  their  content  coming  chiefly  from  the  fields  of  history, 
sociology,  economics,  political  science  and  geography.  There  is  a  ten- 
dency to  add  two  other  closely  related  fields  to  this  group:  first,  guid- 
ance, including  educational  and  vocational  guidance;  second,  character 
education.  Although  this  is  a  tendency,  it  is  not  pronounced  enough  to 
justify  consideration  of  these  last  two  fields  in  this  circular.  Also,  their 
problems  at  present  possess  such  peculiarities  that  they  should  be  dealt 
with  separately. 

Although  several  fields  of  knowledge  are  being  drawn  upon  for  the 
content  of  the  social  studies  and  a  great  variety  of  specific  courses  are 
offered,  there  is  a  distinct  tendency  to  form  unified  or  combined 
courses,24  usually  having  a  certain  continuity  throughout  the  elementary 
and  secondary  schools,  beginning  in  the  early  grades  and  progressing 
more  or  less  regularly  through  to  the  senior  year  of  the  high  school,  but 
also  tending  toward  subject-matter  specialization  in  the  later  years.25 

In  keeping  with  the  tendency  to  scrutinize  and  reformulate  the 
objectives,  there  is  a  tendency  to  examine  critically  the  content  of  the 
social  studies,  asking  to  what  extent  each  item  of  content  contributes 
to  a  realization  of  the  objectives  set  up,  and  asking  particularly  to  what 
extent  it  is  socially  significant.  Many  studies  are  being  made  with  this 
general  point  of  view  in  mind,  as  for  instance,  a  study  to  determine 
what  civic  instruction  will   make   intelligent  voters.26     An   underlying 


2The  following  table  represents  the  results  of  a  questionnaire  study  relative  to 
unification.  It  is  based  on  148  replies  from  representatives  of  county,  city,  and  state 
school  organizations  and  teacher-training  institutions. 

Grades  I       II       III     IV       V     VI     VII    VIII    IX     X      XI     XII 

FSSSiglW&n    90-6  88-7  8°  80-2  69'9  65'8  66A  67-2  58'8  3'13  31.9  37.7 

"The  nation  at  work  on  the  public  school  curriculum."  Fourth  Yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence.  Washington:  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the 
National  Education  Association,   1926,  p.  327. 

2i,One  of  the  outstanding  examples  of  the  way  in  which  a  course  has  been  worked 
out  along  these  lines  is  the  Pennsylvania  program  of  social  studies.  For  a  description 
of  it,  see: 

Gambrill,  J.  Montgomery.  "Experimental  curriculum-making  in  the  social 
studies,"  The  Historical  Outlook,  15:37-42,  January,  1924. 

20Bassett,  B.  B.  "The  content  of  the  course  of  study  in  civics."  Seventeenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington, 
Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,   1918,  p.  63-80. 

[19] 


philosophy  of  social  usefulness  and  many  investigations  are  resulting  in 
a  refinement  of  the  social-studies  content.  Much  that  is  considered  of 
little  probable  usefulness  to  most  individuals  is  being  eliminated,  for 
instance,  insignificant  dates  and  names;  and  some  material  that  is 
thought  to  be  of  much  immediate  social  value  is  being  added  to  the 
social  studies,  for  example,  subject-matter  dealing  with  present-day 
civic  problems. 

b.  Correlation  between  the  social  studies  and  other  school  sub- 
jects.27 At  present  there  are  strong  tendencies  toward  making  English 
and  the  social  studies  the  core  of  the  curriculum,  particularly  beginning 
with  the  junior  high  school.  English  and  the  social  studies  have  even 
been  combined  into  a  single  course  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school.28 
It  appears  that  correlation,  one  time  an  educational  fad,  has  left  a 
definite  impress  on  school  practice.  One  evidence  of  it  is  the  relationship 
that  many  endeavor  to  bring  about  between  the  social  studies  and  other 
school  subjects.  For  example,  the  equipment  necessary  for  some  projects 
in  the  social  studies  is  built  in  manual  arts  classes,  the  natural  science 
involved  in  the  study  of  some  civic  problems  is  more  fully  developed 
in  natural  science  classes,  at  other  times  the  correctness  of  data  included 
in  papers  written  for  social  studies  classes  is  passed  upon  by  the 
science  teacher,  or  the  same  papers  may  be  submitted  for  credit  in  both 
courses.  In  brief,  the  tendency  is  to  bring  the  social  studies  into  vital 
relationship  with  other  school  subjects  wherever  possible. 

c.  Relation  of  the  social  studies  to  extra-curricular  activities. 
Widespread  efforts  to  make  the  citizenship  training  of  the  social  studies 
function  has  resulted  in  many  schemes  for  carrying  the  work  of  the 
classroom  over  into  extra-curricular  activities,  and  in  some  instances 
for  carrying  the  extra-curricular  activities  into  the  work  of  the  social 
studies  classes.  For  example,  current-events  clubs  are  formed,  students 
participate  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  school  control,  civics  classes  take 
charge  of  student  elections,  and  so  forth.    But  even  when  there  is  no 


2TFor  a  short  bibliography  on  correlation  of  the  social  studies  with  other  subjects, 
see: 

The  Historical  Outlook,  16:362-63,  December,  1925. 

28For  a  description  of  one  course,  see: 

Hill,  Howard  C.  "Educational  economy  in  the  reorganization  of  the  social 
studies,"  Twenty-Second  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  II.    Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1923,  p.  111-25. 

The  authors  of  a  recent  series  of  arithmetics  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  classify 
arithmetic  among  the  social  studies.    See: 

McMurry,  Frank,  and  Benson,  C.  Beverley.  Social  Arithmetic,  Books  One, 
Two,  and  Three.    New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company,  1926. 

[20] 


ostensible  relationship  between  the  social  studies  and  extra-curricular 
activities,  the  knowledge  and  general  patterns  of  conduct  gained  in  the 
social  studies  are  expected  to  function  to  a  certain  extent  in  other  than 
class-room  activities  of  the  pupils.  There  is  also  a  strong  tendency  to 
place  more  and  more  emphasis  upon  the  citizenship  training  that  is 
given  by  means  of  extra-curricular  activities.29 

d.  Adaptation  of  the  social  studies  to  local  conditions  and  needs. 

The  social  studies  have  been  affected  about  as  much  as  any  other  group 
of  subjects  by  attempts  to  adjust  curricula  to  local  conditions.  Courses 
in  local  geography  and  history  are  frequently  offered;  civics  courses  are 
frequently  based  chiefly  upon  local  community30  conditions;  and  the 
teaching  in  many  other  courses  is  related  to  local  conditions.  In  general 
the  tendency  is  either  to  take  advantage  of  local  conditions  in  order  to 
motivate  the  teaching  of  the  social  studies  or  to  use  the  social  studies 
to  help  understand  local  conditions.  We  have  here  a  special  manifesta- 
tion of  two  general  tendencies  that  are  evident  in  most  teaching:  first, 
to  make  school  subjects  less  abstract,  and  second,  to  make  them  function 
in  out-of-school  activities. 

e.  Modifications  of  directive  procedures.  It  is  possible  that  inno- 
vations, such  as  the  project  method,  have  influenced  the  directive  pro- 
cedures used  in  the  social  studies  as  greatly  as  in  any  group  of  subjects. 
The  general  tendency  is  to  get  away  from  the  traditional  assignment 
method,  especially  the  catechetical  aspects  of  it,  and  to  introduce  more 
and  more  the  project,  the  problem  and  the  case  method,  student  reports, 
free  use  of  supplementary  references,  much  library  work,  field  trips, 
and  studies  of  local  situations.  In  brief,  the  liberalizing  influences  which 
have  wrought  considerable  changes  in  teaching  procedures  in  all  subjects 
appear  to  find  in  the  social  studies  one  of  the  richest  fields  for  expression 
and  development. 

Summary.  Looking  at  the  matter  broadly,  it  appears  that  the  major 
tendencies  in  the  social  studies  are:  to  biing  more  fields  of  subject- 
matter  into  close  relation  under  the  general  designation  of  social  studies; 
to  scrutinize  the  actual  content  of  courses,  particularly  with  regard  to 


29For  references  bearing  on  this  last  statement,  see: 

Odell,  Charles  W.,  and  Blougii,  John  H.  "An  annotated  bibliography  dealing 
with  extra-curricular  activities  in  elementary  and  high  schools."  University  of  Illinois 
Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  24,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  29.  Urbana: 
University  of  Illinois,  1925,  p.  23-28. 

30Community  Civics  doe,  not  necessarily  mean  a  study  of  the  local  community 
but  of  both  large  and  small  communities.  The  local  community  may  furnish  the  point 
of  departure,  but  the  state  and  nation,  and  even  the  world,  are  also  studied  as  com- 
munities in  such  courses. 

[21] 


its  immediate  social  significance  for  the  pupils;  to  relate  the  work  in  the 
social  studies  to  the  work  in  other  subjects  and  to  the  extra-curricular 
activities  of  the  school;  to  make  adjustments  so  as  to  take  advantage 
of  local  conditions  as  well  as  to  meet  local  needs;  and  to  change  the 
teachers'  directive  procedures  so  that  they  are  in  keeping  with  the  more 
liberal  tendencies. 


[22] 


CHAPTER  III 
FUNCTION  AND  PLAN  OF  COURSES  OF  STUDY31 

Course-of-study  making  a  cooperative  enterprise.  The  making  of 
courses  of  study  is  no  longer  thought  of  as  a  one-man  task,  but  is  gen- 
erally undertaken  as  a  cooperative  enterprise.  The  number  of  persons 
involved  depends  upon  the  school  system,  the  courses  of  study  to  be 
formulated  or  revised,  and  the  specific  plan  adopted.  If  the  course  of 
study  for  only  one  subject  is  to  be  made,  the  superintendent  and  the 
teachers  of  the  subject  (and  the  supervisor,  if  there  is  one)  are  usually 
the  only  persons  involved,  but  if  the  courses  of  study  for  most  or  all  of 
the  subjects  taught  in  a  school  system  are  to  be  formulated,  all  of  the 
teachers  and  school  officials  may  be  working  on  the  project,  often  with 
the  assistance  of  curriculum  experts  and  sometimes  with  the  help  of 
laymen.  In  some  of  the  larger  city  systems  elaborate  organizations  have 
been  built  up,  but  in  smaller  cities  the  work  is  gone  about  more  simply. 
Nevertheless,  a  great  deal  of  cooperation  is  possible  even  in  the  smaller 
systems.  Many  superintendents  state  that  cooperative  course-of-study 
making  has  proved  to  be  the  most  valuable  work  that  they  have  under- 
taken for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service.32 

Function  of  courses  of  study.  Courses  of  study  serve  a  two-fold 
function:  first,  to  coordinate  the  work  of  the  teachers  of  a  school  sys- 
tem, and  second,  to  help  them  as  individual  teachers.  The  coordinating 
function  is  aptly  discussed  in  the  following  quotation.  "When  a  teacher 
is  provided  with  a  carefully  prepared  course  of  study,  she  has  a  detailed 
statement  of  the  specific  tasks  assigned  to  her  and  the  directions  for 
the  performance  of  these  tasks.  Thus  she  is  able  to  undertake  her  year's 


31For  an  enumeration  of  purposes  and  criteria  for  evaluating  courses  of  study,  see: 

"Keeping  pace  with  the  advancing  curriculum."  Research  Bulletin  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  Vol.  3,  Nos.  4  and  5.  Washington:  Research  Division  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  1925,  p.  179-81. 

32For  discussions  of  plans  of  organization  and  benefits  to  be  derived  from  cooper- 
ative course-of-study  making,  see: 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "Making  a  course  of  study."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin, 
Vol.  23,  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  35.  Urbana:  University 
of  Illinois,  1925,  p.  11-17. 

"The  elementary  school  curriculum."  Second  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of 
Superintendence.  Washington:  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association,  1924,  p   35-76. 

"The  nation  at  work  on  the  public  school  curriculum."  Fourth  Yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence.  Washington:  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the 
National  Education  Association,  1926,  p.  19-54. 

[23] 


work,  confident  that  if  she  complies  with  the  specifications,  she  will  be 
cooperating  with  the  other  teachers  in  a  consistent  and  unified  effort  to 
educate  the  children  of  the  community.  Without  a  course  of  study  a 
teacher  works  more  or  less  in  the  dark.  Although,  individually  the 
teachers  of  a  school  system  may  be  capable,  industrious,  and  conscien- 
tious in  their  work,  they  will  not,  except  by  accident,  coordinate  their 
efforts  in  the  best  way  unless  they  are  provided  with  a  good  course  of 
study."33 

The  teaching  tasks  may  be  ever  so  well  apportioned  to  the  various 
school  grades,  and  thus  each  teacher  be  assured  of  her  proper  niche  in 
the  task  of  educating  the  children,  but  that  is  not  enough.  There  must 
be  a  fair  degree  of  certainty  that  each  teacher  will  perform  her  tasks 
satisfactorily.  A  well-prepared  course  of  study  provides  a  teacher  with 
many  suggestions  as  to  appropriate  and  effective  procedures  to  be  used 
in  accomplishing  her  apportionment  of  the  work.  These  suggestions  are 
made  in  proximity  to  the  enumeration  of  tasks  to  be  performed,  which 
gives  added  pertinence  to  both.  Without  a  course  of  study,  reliance 
must  be  placed  on  each  teacher  familiarizing  herself  with  the  books  on 
methods  of  teaching  and  with  the  numerous  educational  magazine  arti- 
cles on  the  subject,  and  then  applying  whatever  she  finds  to  be  usable. 
There  is  not  a  high  degree  of  assurance  that  this  procedure  will  achieve 
satisfactory  results.  One  reason  for  this  lack  of  assurance  is  that  such 
material  is  not  available  to  as  many  teachers  as  it  should  be. 

Types  of  material  in  courses  of  study.  The  double  purpose  of 
courses  of  study  largely  determines  their  content.  In  order  to  coordinate 
the  efforts  of  the  teachers  of  a  school  system  and  to  help  them  use  ap- 
propriate teaching  procedures,  the  following  two  general  types  of  ma- 
terial should  be  included:  (1)  specifications  of  the  detailed  objectives  of 
each  course  and  of  the  material  aids  to  instruction,  and  (2)  directions 
relative  to  instruction,  which  consist  chiefly  of  suggestions  as  to  learning 
exercises  and  methods  of  stimulating  and  directing  learning. 

Plan  of  organization  of  courses  of  study.  Courses  of  study  are 
instruments  designed  to  assist  in  making  instruction  more  efficient.  Next 
to  their  actual  content,  probably  the  most  important  factor  that  deter- 
mines the  effectiveness  of  courses  of  study  is  the  way  in  which  this 
content  is  presented,  since  a  poor  organization  may  conceal  many  ex- 
cellent suggestions.  The  better  practices  in  course-of-study  making  indi- 
cate that  a  course  of  study  should  be  organized  along  lines  similar  to 
the  following: 


33Monroe,  Walter  S.    op.  cit.,  p.  4-5. 

[24] 


1.  Introduction.  The  introduction  to  a  course  of  study  serves  a 
four-fold  function:  first,  to  make  clear  the  function  and  plan  of  the 
course  of  study  to  those  who  are  to  use  it;  second,  to  establish  the  point 
of  view  which  prevails  throughout  the  course  of  study;  third,  to  give 
a  broad  view  of  the  subject  throughout  the  grades  in  which  it  is  taught; 
and  fourth,  to  present  discussions  of  the  major  aspects  of  class  instruc- 
tion. Each  of  these  functions  is  discussed  later  with  special  reference 
to  the  social  studies. 

2.  Course  of  study  by  grades.  Following  the  introductory  section 
should  be  a  separate  section  for  each  grade  in  which  the  subject  is 
taught.  The  material  in  these  grade  sections  may  be  grouped  under 
two  general  classifications:  first,  specifications;  second,  suggestions  rela- 
tive to  instruction.  The  specifications  for  each  grade  include  a  detailed 
statement  of  objectives,  an  outline  of  the  work  for  that  grade,  the  name 
of  the  textbook  to  be  used,  a  list  of  supplementary  references,  and  any 
desirable  list  of  other  instructional  materials  to  be  used.  The  sugges- 
tions relative  to  instruction  which  are  made  in  the  grade  sections  are 
made  up  chiefly  of  direct  aids  to  the  teacher  such  as  lists  of  effective 
learning  exercises,  good  means  to  use  in  motivating  pupil  activity,  and 
lists  of  tests  available  for  evaluating  pupil  achievement. 

3.  References  for  the  teacher.  Finally,  there  should  be  a  short 
annotated  bibliography  of  selected  references  which  the  teachers  may  use. 

Outline  of  a  course  of  study  in  the  social  studies.  An  outline  of 
the  salient  items  of  a  course  of  study  in  the  social  studies  is  given  to 
provide  a  guide  for  those  attempting  to  prepare  one.  The  assumption 
underlying  this  outline,  as  well  as  all  of  the  succeeding  discussion,  is 
that  one  course  of  study  is  to  be  written  for  the  social  studies  throughout 
the  entire  elementary  and  secondary  school,  or  at  the  most,  one  course 
of  study  for  each  school  division — elementary  school,  junior  high  school, 
and  senior  high  school — rather  than  a  separate  course  of  study  for  each 
subject — history,  civics,  geography,  and  so  forth.  Such  an  assumption 
does  not  necessarily  presuppose  a  composite  or  unified  course,  for  the 
individual  subjects  may  be  kept  separate  from  each  other,  although 
there  must  be  some  recognition  of  their  comparatively  close  relationship. 

If  a  separate  volume  is  published  for  each  of  the  major  school 
divisions  or  for  each  subject,  the  introductory  section  should  be  presented 
in  a  separate  introductory  volume  or  rewritten  with  appropriate  modifi- 
cations for  each  course-of-study  volume.  In  the  following  outline  the 
grade  divisions  are  not  presented  in  full,  but  instead  the  outline  which 
should  be  followed  for  each  subject  is  given. 

I  25  1 


Although  this  outline  is  made  on  the  assumption  that  one  course 
of  study  in  the  social  studies  is  to  be  made  for  the  entire  school  system, 
and  what  is  said  in  the  following  pages  is  written  from  the  same  point 
of  view,  most  of  it  is  applicable  to  whatever  organization  may  be  adopted 
by  a  school  system  for  their  courses  and  courses  of  study.  Occasionally, 
however,  minor  changes  will  be  necessary  in  both  point  of  view  and 
form  of  organization. 
I.  Introduction 

A.  Purpose  and  plan  of  course  of  study 

B.  Purpose  of  education  and  of  the  social  studies  (including  state- 
ment of  ultimate  objectives) 

C.  The  social-studies  program 

D.  Essential  differences  between  instruction  in  elementary,  junior- 
high,  and  senior-high  school 

E.  Technique  of  instruction  in  classes 
II.  Course  of  study  by  grades 

The  outline  should  provide  a  separate  division  for  each  of  the  first 
six,  eight,  or  nine  grades,  depending  upon  the  administrative 
organization  of  school  divisions.  Within  each  of  the  grade 
divisions  there  should  be  a  subdivision  for  each  subject  to  be 
taught  in  that  grade.  For  the  senior  high  school  the  course-of- 
study  divisions  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  subjects  only. 
The  following  outline  should  be  followed  for  each  subject  in 
both  the  elementary  and  secondary  divisions. 
Subject  of  study 

1.  Specifications 

a.  Immediate  objectives 

(1)  General 

(a)  Specific  habits — fixed  associations 

(b)  Knowledge  controls 

(c)  General  patterns  of  conduct 

(2)  Specific 

(a)  Definitely  stated 

(b)  Implied  in  subject  outline 

b.  Material  aids  to  instruction 

2.  Suggestions  relative  to  instruction 

a.  Learning  exercises 

b.  Means  of  motivating  pupil  activity 

c.  Means  of  evaluating  pupil  achievement 
III.  References  for  the  teacher 


[26] 


CHAPTER  IV 

CONTENT  OF  COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  THE 

SOCIAL  STUDIES 

A.  Introductory  section.  The  four-fold  function  of  the  introduc- 
tory section  of  courses  of  study  in  general  was  stated  in  preceding  pages. 
Each  of  the  sub-functions  is  dealt  with  at  this  point  with  particular 
reference  to  the  social  studies. 

1.  Function  and  plan  of  the  course  of  study.  The  first  service  that 
the  introduction  to  a  course  of  study  should  render  the  teacher  is  to 
make  clear  the  function  of  the  course  of  study  as  an  instrument  of 
supervision,  that  is,  as  a  guide  and  help  to  the  teacher  in  her  task  of 
educating  children.  This  statement  of  function  may  include  suggestions 
as  to  the  way  in  which  the  course  of  study  is  to  be  used.  There  should 
also  be  statements  explaining  the  plan  of  organization  so  that  the  teacher 
may  proceed  intelligently  to  the  major  portion  of  the  course  of  study. 

2.  Point  of  view.  Following  the  explicit  statements  of  purpose, 
ways  of  using,  and  plan,  there  should  be  a  statement  of  the  point  of 
view  or  educational  philosophy  that  is  exemplified  in  the  succeeding 
pages  of  the  course  of  study.  An  educational  philosophy  is  basic  to  any 
formulation  of  courses  of  study,  just  as  some  philosophy  is  basic  to  any 
large  undertaking.  If  teachers  are  to  make  the  most  effective  use  possi- 
ble of  a  course  of  study,  they  should  explicitly  recognize  the  assumptions 
that  lie  back  of  it.  The  two  major  topics  that  should  be  given  consid- 
eration in  a  statement  of  educational  philosophy  with  reference  to  the 
social  studies  are:  first,  the  general  purpose  of  education;  second,  the 
part  that  the  social  studies  as  a  whole,  and  each  subject  in  particular, 
have  in  realizing  this  general  purpose. 

In  the  process  of  making  courses  of  study,  the  statements  of  educa- 
tional philosophy  should  be  formulated  early  in  order  that  the  makers 
may  be  fully  conscious  of  their  guiding  principles.  If  a  course  of  study 
is  formulated  with  a  definite  educational  philosophy  in  mind,  it  will 
assume  a  certain  consistency  which  will  add  greatly  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  finished  product. 

No  doubt  anyone  who  starts  to  write  a  course  of  study  will  have 
an  educational  philosophy  upon  which  to  base  a  formulation  of  general 
objectives,  but  neither  the  educational  philosophy  nor  the  objectives 
may  be  clearly  defined.   In  such  instances,  it  would  be  well  to  read  one 

r  27 1 


or  two  books  on  educational  theory  and  methods  of  teaching  the  social 
studies  before  attempting  to  write  out  a  point  of  view  and  ultimate 
objectives.34 

A  statement  of  the  ultimate  objectives  of  the  social  studies  may 
well  be  included  with  the  statement  of  the  part  that  the  social  studies 
have  in  realizing  the  general  purposes  of  education,  or  the  ultimate 
objectives  may  be  discussed  separately.  However,  under  either  plan, 
they  should  be  presented  in  the  introductory  section  of  the  course  of 
study. 

3.  Broad  view.  In  order  to  enable  the  teachers  of  the  social  studies 
to  orientate  properly  their  particular  courses,  thev  should  be  given  a 
broad  view  of  all  of  the  social  studies  that  are  to  be  taught  in  the  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  schools.  This  is  more  desirable  for  the  social 
studies  than  for  some  other  subjects  because  of  the  tendency  to  draw 
several  subjects  and  fields  of  study  into  close  correlation  and  even  to 
form  unified  or  composite  courses.  In  addition,  there  is  general  recog- 
nition of  a  need  to  make  the  social  studies  continuous,  and  more  or  less 
cumulative,  from  the  early  grades  to  the  end  of  the  high  school. 

A  broad  view  may  be  provided  by  means  of  three  or  four  devices 
in  the  introduction  to  a  course  of  study.  There  may  be  a  general  exposi- 
tory passage  that  presents  a  view  of  the  social  studies  in  general.  The 
program  of  studies  may  be  given,  that  is,  a  statement  of  the  subjects 
to  be  studied  in  each  grade,  the  number  of  minutes  per  week  to  be 
allotted  each  subject,  and  a  list  of  required  and  elective  courses,  with 
prerequisites,  in  the  secondary  school.  The  objectives  of  each  subject 
may  be  presented  in  a  tabular,  or  at  least  cumulative,  form  of  outline 
so  that  the  progress  from  grade  to  grade,  as  well  as  the  interrelations 
between  courses,  may  be  evident.  .A  general  outline  of  the  various 
courses  may  also  be  included.  It  appears  that  the  best  practice  in 
course-of-study  making  provides  for  at  least  a  general  exposition  and 
statements  relative  to  the  program  of  studies. 

4.  Essential  differences  between  instruction  in  elementary,  junior- 
high,  and  senior-high  schools.  As  a  group  of  subjects  with  a  certain 
continuity  over  a  wide  spread  of  school  grades,  the  social  studies  involve 
certain  difficulties  that  are  not  pronounced  in  subjects,  such  as  reading 
and  arithmetic,  in  which  formal  instruction  is  confined  to  a  compara- 
tively short  span  of  school  years.  The  differences  in  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion, types  of  subject-matter,  and  methods  of  instruction  at  the  various 
grade  levels  are  proportionate  to  the  span  of  years  intervening.    The 


4See  bibliography  for  suggested  references. 

[28] 


variations  in  these  phases  of  instruction  are  chiefly  dependent  upon  two 
sets  of  factors:  (1)  the  maturity  of  pupils,  and  (2)  the  different  func- 
tions to  be  served  by  education  at  various  levels.  The  elementary  school 
and  the  senior  high  school  include  the  two  extremes;  the  junior  high 
school  is  the  period  of  transition  from  one  to  the  other.  Of  course  a 
certain  amount  of  gradual  change  is  wrought  throughout  the  elementary 
school,  that  is,  by  the  time  the  upper  grades  are  reached,  the  purpose, 
learning  exercises,  and  directive  procedures  are  much  more  similar  to 
those  of  the  high  school  than  they  are  to  those  of  the  lower  grades. 
However,  one  of  the  explicit  functions  of  the  junior  high  school  is  to 
effect  a  gradual  transition  so  as  to  bridge  the  gap  which  usually  exists 
at  this  point  in  an  eight-four  form  of  organization. 

On  the  whole  the  elementary  school  is  the  period  devoted  to  mastery 
of  the  educational  tools  in  both  tool  and  content  subjects.  The  predom- 
inating function  is  the  inculcation  of  abilities,  attitudes,  and  ideals 
common  to  everyone.  On  the  other  hand,  the  differentiating  function 
becomes  of  considerable  importance,  if  not  predominant,  in  the  senior 
high  school.  The  subjects  studied  throughout  the  elementary  school  are 
largely  the  same  for  all  pupils.  In  the  senior  high  school  much  election 
of  subjects  is  allowed  and  encouraged.  Only  English  and  the  social 
studies  remain  as  subjects  required  of  all  pupils  in  many  schools,  although 
occasionally  other  subjects  are  also  required.  Memorization  is  prominent 
in  the  elementary  school  with  consequent  emphasis  on  drill.  Although 
drill  is  still  much  in  evidence  on  the  high-school  level,  there  is  a  decided 
shift  toward  an  emphasis  on  reflective  thinking  or  reasoning.  Referring 
to  the  previous  discussion  of  objectives  and  the  three  classes  of  controls 
of  conduct  to  be  engendered  by  the  school — specific  habits,  knowledge, 
and  general  patterns  of  conduct — it  may  be  said  that  the  outcomes  of 
the  elementary  school  are  mostly  specific  habits  as  direct  outcomes,  and 
general  patterns  of  conduct  as  incidental  outcomes.  In  the  high  school 
the  knowledge  outcomes  take  on  greatly  added  importance. 

5.  The  technique  of  class  instruction.  Although  the  course  of  study 
should  not  be  a  treatise  on  the  technique  of  teaching,  it  should  contain 
some  discussion  of  the  technique  of  class  instruction  along  with  numer- 
ous "practical"  suggestions  which  teachers  may  apply  directly  in  their 
teaching.  Statements  of  general  principles  and  other  generalizations 
need  not  be  repeated  for  each  grade  and  subject,  but  may  be  presented 
at  one  place  in  the  course  of  study,  preferably  in  the  introductory 
section.  The  more  detailed  and  immediately  applicable  aids  to  teaching 
may  be  better  placed  in  the  grade  and  subject  divisions  so  that  added 


[29] 


meaning  and  serviceability  may  be  given  them  by  their  juxtaposition 
to  the  specifications. 

The  function  of  the  teacher  is  to  stimulate  and  direct  the  learning 
process.  The  activities  in  which  he  engages  in  realizing  this  function 
may  be  classified  more  or  less  sequentially  as  follows:  (a)  devising 
learning  exercises,  (b)  assigning  learning  exercises,  (c)  directing  the 
doing  of  learning  exercises,  (d)  motivating  pupil  activity,  (e)  evaluating 
pupil  achievement,  (f)  diagnosing  pupil  difficulty,  and  (g)  giving  direct 
assistance.  Most  of  the  activities  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  are  carried 
on  in  class  or  recitation  periods. 

Class  periods  serve  a  double  function:  first,  to  provide  opportunity 
for  learning  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher,  and  second, 
to  prepare  for  learning  away  from  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher. 
Of  course  the  second  function  is  less  prominent  whenever  all  of  the 
formal  learning  is  done  in  the  class  period,  as  happens  with  any  scheme 
of  supervised  study  or  laboratorized  work  when  no  tasks  are  assigned 
to  be  done  away  from  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  teacher.  In 
realizing  either  of  these  two  functions,  the  teacher  engages  in  all  seven 
of  the  types  of  activity  enumerated  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  How- 
ever, the  activities  of  the  teacher  in  relation  to  preparing  for  learning 
away  from  his  immediate  supervision  are  characterized  by  greater 
formality  and  directness  than  in  providing  for  opportunities  for  learning 
under  his  immediate  supervision.  For  example,  the  teacher  employs 
formal  tests  in  the  main  for  the  purpose  of  evaluating  pupil  achievement 
in  doing  learning  exercises  outside  of  the  class  period,  but  much  of  the 
evaluation  of  pupil  achievement  in  doing  learning  exercises  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  the  teacher  is  incidental  and  informal,  being  made 
during  the  time  that  the  pupil  is  doing  the  exercise  or  immediately  on 
completing  it. 

The  purpose  in  this  circular  is  to  direct  the  attention  of  course-of- 
study  makers  to  the  aspects  of  class  instruction  which  are  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraphs  and  not  to  present  a  dissertation  such  as 
might  appear  in  a  course  of  study.  However,  a  brief  discussion  of  the 
seven  types  of  teaching  activity  may  assist  in  understanding  them. 

a.  Devising  learning  exercises.  Textbooks  in  the  social  studies  are 
chiefly  compilations  of  material  to  be  read  and  not  of  exercises  to  be 
done,  although  at  present  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  makers  of  text- 
books in  the  social  studies  to  suggest  exercises  to  be  done  by  the  pupils. 
However,  it  is  still  largely  left  to  the  teacher  to  devise  the  learning 
exercises  which  the  pupils  are  to  do  in  order  that  they  may  achieve  the 
objectives  set  for  them. 

[30] 


The  learning  exercises  that  a  teacher  assigns  probably  play  a  more 
important  part  in  stimulating  and  directing  the  pupils'  learning  than  do 
many  of  the  directive  procedures  which  he  employs.  For  instance,  the 
kind  of  learning  exercises  which  pupils  do  are  probably  more  significant 
than  whether  the  project  or  assignment  method  is  used  if  the  teacher 
is  equally  stimulating  in  using  either  method.  However,  comparatively 
little  attention  has  been  given  by  either  educational  theorists,  textbook 
writers,  or  practical  school  administrators  and  supervisors  to  assisting 
teachers  in  devising  exercises.  Observers  often  criticize  teaching  as 
inefficient,  yet  are  not  aware  that  in  many  instances  the  kind  of  exercises 
set  by  the  teacher  is  the  factor  that  makes  for  inefficiency.  For  example, 
in  assigning  new  lessons,  teachers  frequently  direct  the  pupils  merely 
to  read  instead  of  stating  a  problem  for  which  reading  will  be  required 
as  a  means. 

The  course  of  study  should  point  out  the  purposes  to  be  accom- 
plished by  various  types  of  exercises,  such  as,  comparison  of  two  or 
more  authors'  points  of  view  on  controversial  matters,  preparation  of 
topical  summaries,  making  reports  to  the  class,  listening  to  pupil  reports, 
and  the  like.  In  this  connection  some  suggestions  should  be  made  as 
to  ways  in  which  the  textbook  and  other  material  aids  to  instruction 
should  be  used.  For  instance,  as  pupils  progress  through  the  school 
the  use  of  supplementary  references  should  increase  and  less  dependence 
should  be  placed  upon  the  text  as  a  major  source  of  information.  The 
discussion  of  learning  exercises  should  also  include  whatever  is  said 
about  some  of  the  more  specialized  aspects  of  instruction,  such  as  the 
use  of  projects,  problems,  notebooks,  and  current  events,  which  are 
chiefly  significant  because  of  the  types  of  learning  experiences  involved.35 


35Since  most  of  the  learning  exercises  in  the  social  studies  involve  reading,  exer- 
cises of  this  nature  need  to  be  given  especiai  attention.  The  following  twelve  types  of 
learning  in  textbook  study  have  been  identified: 

1.  Comprehension  of  material  read  plus  memorization  so  that  it  can  be  reproduced. 

2.  With  the  text  at  hand  preparation  of  a  summary  which  contains  the  central 
ideas  of  the  assignment  studied. 

3.  With  the  text  at  hand  preparation  of  an  outline  which  gives  the  principal  points 
and  supporting  details  arranged  to  show  order  or  relative  importance  and  rela- 
tions to  each  other. 

4.  Obtaining  information  for  the  purpose  of  solving  problems  or  answering  ques- 
tions. 

5.  Extension  of  one's  range  of  general  information  by  reading  widely  material 
directly  related  to  a  given  subject. 

6.  Discovery  of  collateral  or  illustrative  material  for  topics  or  problems  under 
discussion. 

7.  Enlargement  of  vocabulary. 

8.  Appreciation  of  the  significance  of  each  word  used  in  a  concisely  expressed 
statement  or  principle. 

[31] 


Relation  of  learning  exercises  to  local  conditions.  In  educational 
writing  and  discussions,  much  attention  is  given  to  the  effect  of  local 
conditions  on  curricula  and  courses  of  study.  The  work  of  the  school 
may  be  adjusted  to  local  needs  in  at  least  two  ways:  (1)  by  adaptations 
of  objectives  and  (2)  by  adaptations  of  learning  exercises.  The  distinc- 
tion between  these  two  types  of  adjustments  is  seldom  made,  although 
it  is  fundamental  to  any  consideration  of  adaptations  of  school  work  to 
particular  localities.  The  objectives  of  the  social  studies  are  essentially 
the  same  for  most  communities  in  the  United  States,  but  diverse  means 
may  be  used  in  different  communities  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  same 
objectives.  For  example,  it  may  be  that  one  of  the  more  recent  and 
special  forms  of  city  government,  such  as  the  commission  or  city  man- 
ager form,  may  have  been  adopted  recently  or  it  may  be  under  dis- 
cussion and  subject  to  vote  in  an  approaching  election.  Such  a  situation 
offers  unique  opportunity  on  which  to  base  learning  exercises.  Some 
such  situations  are  only  temporary  and  must  be  taken  advantage  of  as 
they  arise,  for  they  cannot  be  foreseen  to  any  extent.  Other  local  con- 
ditions are  of  a  semi-permanent  nature  and  can  well  be  suggested  in 
the  course  of  study. 

Local  conditions  may  handicap  the  work  in  the  social  studies  as 
well  as  afford  advantages  such  as  those  just  mentioned.  The  presence 
of  a  large  foreign  element,  for  instance,  may  make  it  necessary  to  de- 


9.  A  clear  comprehension  of  the  essential  conditions  of  a  problem  which  is  to  be 
solved. 

10.  Discovery  of  new  or  supplementary  problems  related  to  the  topic  being  studied. 

11.  Drawing  valid  conclusions  from  given  data  or  statements. 

12.  Following  directions  with  accuracy  and  reasonable  speed. 
From : 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  ''Types  of  learning  required  of  pupils  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  and  in  the  high  school."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  19,  No.  15, 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin.  No.  7.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1921. 
16  p. 

For  an  analysis  of  the  causes  of  errors  made  by  a  group  of  high-school  students 
in  doing  the  first  of  these  types  of  textbook  study,  and  the  remedial  measures  suggested, 
see* 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.  "Errors  made  by  high-school 
students  in  one  type  of  textbook  study."     School  Review,  31:36-47,  January,  1923. 

In  a  manuscript  which  is  soon  to  be  published,  Dr.  Monroe  views  this  matter  of 
textbook  study  with  particular  emphasis  upon  the  point  of  view  of  the  learner.  He 
distinguishes  the  following  seven  reading  purposes  or  attitudes: 

1.  Reading  to  understand. 

2.  Reading  to  remember. 

3.  Searching  for  information. 

4.  Critical  attitude  toward  statement  of  author. 

5.  Supplementing  the  text. 

6.  Analytical  study  of  the  text. 

7.  Reading  for  enjoyment. 

[32] 


vise  many  learning  exercises  that  are  suited  to  meet  the  unusual  situa- 
ation.  Thus,  the  content  of  a  subject  may  be  varied  in  order  to  appeal 
to  the  particular  interests  of  the  pupils,  to  emphasize  ideas  and  ideals 
that  demand  especial  attention  for  their  inculcation,  such  as  American 
ideals  of  liberty,  or  to  meet  other  needs. 

b.  Assigning  learning  exercises.  Probably  next  in  importance  to 
the  learning  exercises  to  be  done  is  the  assigning  of  them  by  the  teacher. 
In  the  lower  grades  most  of  the  pupils'  studying  is  done  during  school 
hours  and  more  or  less  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  teacher. 
In  the  upper  grades  and  high  school  the  tendency  is  toward  independent 
study,  that  is,  the  teacher  does  not  give  the  pupils  so  much  immediate 
direction.  The  importance  of  detailed  assignments  tends  to  increase  as 
the  amount  of  immediate  supervision  by  the  teacher  decreases.  If  pu- 
pils are  to  work  effectively  and  build  up  adequate  study  habits,  they 
must  have  well  defined  tasks  to  perform.  The  result  to  be  attained  must 
be  clearly  conceived  by  the  pupils  and  the  method  of  procedure  under- 
stood. Of  course  the  definition  of  tasks  by  the  teacher  must  not  be  such 
as  to  breed  dependence  on  "cook-book  recipe"  types  of  directions,  but 
rather  to  develop  ability  to  work  independently  and  effectively.  How- 
ever, much  of  the  inefficiency  of  methods  of  study  which  pupils  exhibit 
as  well  as  much  of  study-period  idleness  and  mischief-making,  is  trace- 
able to  poor  lesson  assignments,  that  is,  poor  directions  for  work.  Pu- 
pils attempt  to  study  independently  without  having  clear  ideas  as  to 
what  should  be  accomplished  or  the  means  of  accomplishing  it.  As  a 
result  they  work  ineffectively  or  are  idle  because  they  do  not  know  what 
to  do,  or  think  that  they  have  accomplished  the  assigned  task  when  they 
have  not.  The  course  of  study  should  give  suggestions  on  the  char- 
acteristics of  good  assignments,  such  as  the  time  of  making  and  the  goals 
set  up.  Criteria  for  judging  assignments  may  also  be  given,  as  well  as 
some  examples. ?G 

c.  Directing  the  doing  of  learning  exercises.  In  the  case  of  learn- 
ing exercises  which  are  to  be  done  away  from  the  immediate  supervision 

36For  suggestions  on  reading  exercises  see: 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.  "Training  in  the  technique  of 
study."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Bulletin  No.  20.    Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1924.    66  p. 

This  is  a  study  of  training  in  the  technique  of  study.  Directions  for  study  are 
given;  also,  an  analysis  of  the  study  habits  of  bright  children.  A  bibliography  is  ap- 
pended. 

Also  see: 

Odell,  Charles  W.  'The  assignment  of  lessons."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin. 
Vol.  23,  No.  7,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  38.  Urbana:  Universitv 
of  Illinois,  1925.    20  p. 

[33] 


of  the  teacher,  the  directing  of  the  pupils  in  doing  them  is  so  intimately 
tied  up  with  the  assignment  that  very  little  distinction  is  possible  even 
in  an  arbitrary  analysis  such  as  the  one  presented  in  this  circular.  But 
in  the  case  of  learning  exercises  done  within  the  class  period,  directing 
the  doing  of  learning  exercises  is  an  activity  of  the  teacher  which  is 
fairly  prominent  and  distinct  from  the  assignment.  Outstanding  prob- 
lems for  the  teacher  in  this  connection  are  such  as  the  following:  How  to 
secure  maximum  pupil  activity  that  is  educative.  How  to  encourage 
pupil  initiative  without  undue  inefficiency  or  ineffectiveness.  How  to 
direct  and  yet  make  the  pupil  responsible. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  teacher's  directing  is  incidental  and  in- 
formal, as  for  example  in  directing  pupil  discussions.  Frequently  the 
direction  is  simply  implied  by  the  action.  For  example,  pupils  are  sel- 
dom directed  to  follow  a  teacher's  line  of  thought  when  he  explains 
something,  although  the  direction  is  clearly  implied.  Occasionally  di- 
rections are  formal  and  very  explicit,  as  when  the  teacher  directs  the 
pupil  to  look  in  a  particular  book  for  the  answer  to  a  question  which  has 
been  raised  or  tells  him  to  follow  a  certain  procedure  in  reading  his 
textbook. 

On  the  whole,  the  directing  of  pupils  in  doing  learning  exercises  is 
an  activity  on  the  part  oi  the  teacher  which  requires  consummate  skill 
and  judgment.  The  course  of  study  may  direct  the  attention  of  the 
teacher  to  some  of  the  more  important  features  of  this  task,  but  assid- 
uous practice  and  careful  supervision  are  necessary  in  order  to  achieve 
a  high  degree  of  ability. 

d.  Motivating  pupil  activity.  Pupil  activity  is  motivated  in  the 
main  by  having  pupils  do  things  which  are  interesting  to  them.  Many 
pupils  like  to  read  historical  novels,  to  look  at  pictures,  to  take  part  in 
or  witness  dramatization  of  historical  events,  to  visit  places  of  historical 
or  civic  interest  in  the  community,  to  make  cartoons  or  write  poems 
depicting  historical  facts,  and  to  do  many  other  things  which  teachers 
ask  of  them.  In  turn,  these  activities  add  point  and  interest  to  some  of 
the  more  formal  activities  which  pupils  are  asked  to  do,  such  as  those  in 
connection  with  textbook  material.  The  appropriateness  of  any  moti- 
vating procedure  depends  upon  the  need  for  motivation,  which  in  turn 
depends  in  the  main  upon  the  objectives  to  be  attained,  the  type  of 
reading  or  other  activity  being  engaged  in,  the  age  and  interests  of  the 
pupils,  and  the  materials  of  instruction  which  are  being  used.  The  pre- 
dominant use  of  textbooks  in  the  social  studies,  with  consequent  nov- 
elty when  exercises  are  engaged  in  which  involve  other  materials,  makes. 

[34] 


the  situation  such  that  the  problem  of  motivation  appears  chiefly  in 
connection  with  pupil  activities  that  involve  the  use  of  textbooks. 

From  a  negative  point  of  view,  two  things  should  be  noted  about 
motivation.  In  the  first  place,  teachers  should  not  ask  pupils  to  engage 
in  certain  activities  merely  because  the  pupils  like  to  do  them,  but  rather 
because  engaging  in  them  will  definitely  contribute  to  the  engendering 
of  desired  controls  of  conduct.  Otherwise,  motivation  is  likely  not  to 
result  in  any  desired  educational  product  and  may  even  produce  unde- 
sirable results.  In  the  second  place,  teachers  should  not  feel  that  they 
must  explicitly  motivate  every  learning  activity  of  pupils.  Such  a  pro- 
cedure frequently  results  in  what  is  known  as  "sugar  coating"  and  pro- 
duces undesirable  attitudes  in  the  pupils. 

e.  Evaluating  pupil  achievement.  The  course  of  study  should  not 
attempt  to  be  a  treatise  on  testing,  particularly  on  the  use  of  standard- 
ized tests.  References  may  be  given  which  give  a  more  extended  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  However,  the  course  of  study  should  present  the 
salient  points  with  regard  to  methods  and  means  of  evaluating  pupil 
achievement.  Some  of  the  more  important  features  that  may  be  dis- 
cussed are:  the  use  of  standardized  tests,37  the  construction  and  use  of 
more  or  less  informal  tests  of  the  "new  examination"  type,38  the  use  of 
the  more  traditional  types  of  examination,  particularly  those  involving 
thought  questions,30  and  the  marking  of  test  papers,  especially  making 
the  distinction  between  scores  and  marks  or  grades. 

f.  Diagnosing  pupil  difficulty.  One  of  the  most  important  uses  to 
which  tests  and  test  results  may  be  put  by  the  classroom  teacher  is  the 
diagnosing  of  pupil  difficulty.  The  course  of  study  should  list  and  de- 
scribe types  of  difficulties  which  frequently  occur.  For  example,  pupils 
often  exhibit  a  lack  of  understanding  of  a  generalization.  If  a  test  re- 
veals that  the  pupil  has  very  little  specific  information  of  the  type  on 


37See: 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  DeVoss,  J.  C,  and  Kelly,  F.  J.  Educational  Tests  and  Meas- 
urements, Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1924, 
P.  272-96. 

38See: 

Odell,  C.  W.  "Objective  measurement  of  information."  University  of  Illinois 
Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  36,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular  No.  44.  Urbana: 
University  of  Illinois,  1926,  p.  3-27. 

Ruch,  G.  M.  The  Improvement  of  the  Written  Examination.  Chicago:  Scott, 
Foresman  and  Company,  1924.    193  p. 

39See: 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  and  Souders,  L.  B.  "The  present  status  of  written  examinations 
and  suggestions  for  their  improvement."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  21,  No. 
13,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  17.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois, 
1923,  p.  7-77. 

[35] 


which  the  generalization  depends,  it  is  probable  that  this  is  one  of  the 
factors  making  for  a  lack  of  understanding.  This  is  a  phase  of  the 
teacher's  work  which  has  been  studied  very  little  in  the  field  of  the  social 
studies.  Because  of  the  lack  of  information  available,  course-of-study 
makers  have  an  especially  good  opportunity  to  be  of  real  assistance  to 
teachers.  Inasmuch  as  most  of  the  work  in  the  social  studies  involves 
reading,  a  large  amount  of  what  has  been  done  with  diagnosis  of  pupil 
difficulty  in  reading  is  applicable.  However,  other  types  of  difficulty 
must  be  discovered.  Some  suggestions  about  how  to  proceed  in  making 
use  of  test  results,  particularly  how  to  diagnose  pupils'  difficulties  should 
be  given.  Yet  the  course  of  study  should  not  go  into  too  much  detail. 
It  may  be  supplemented  by  references  to  good  treatises  on  the  subject. 

g.  Giving  direct  assistance.  Some  kind  of  direct  assistance  should 
always  follow  diagnosis,  for  otherwise  the  diagnosis  does  not  serve  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  made.  Most  assistance  is  given  in  study  periods 
in  which  the  teacher  assists  the  pupils  by  answering  questions,  telling 
them  where  they  may  find  certain  materials,  by  assigning  supplemen- 
tary exercises  that  are  designed  to  help  the  pupils  overcome  certain  diffi- 
culties, and  the  like.  Most  assistance  should  usually  be  of  the  nature  of 
assigning  supplementary  exercises.40 

By  reason  of  the  nature  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  most  as- 
sistance must  be  individual,  although  sometimes  the  teacher  may  deal 
with  a  group.  Many  school  systems  adopt  some  formal  scheme,  usu- 
ally called  supervised  study,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  teacher, 
among  other  things,  an  opportunity  to  assist  the  pupils  more  than  is 
possible  in  a  traditionally  organized  school.  In  the  periods  set  aside  for 
such  work  the  teacher  may  assist  the  pupils  individually  or  in  groups. 
If  a  school  system  has  adopted  a  particular  scheme  of  supervised  study, 
some  specific  direction  should  be  given  so  that  the  instruction  in  the 
social  studies  will  fit  in  with  the  general  plan.  In  such  instances,  it  is 
frequently  desirable  to  incorporate  a  separate  topic  in  the  introductory 
section  of  the  course  of  study  rather  than  attempt  to  place  all  that  is  to 
be  said  about  supervising  study  under  the  topic  of  giving  direct  assist- 
ance. 

B.  Course  of  study  by  grades.  The  general  nature  of  the  content 
of  the  grade  divisions  of  the  course  of  study  was  set  forth  briefly  in 


MSee: 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.  "Training  in  the  technique  of 
study."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Bulletin  Xo.  23.    Urbana:    University  of  Illinois,  1924.    66  p. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.  '"Errors  made  by  high-school 
students  in  one  type  of  textbook  study,"  School  Review,  31:36-47,  January,   1923. 

[36] 


preceding  pages.  It  will  be  helpful  to  consider  a  somewhat  more  de- 
tailed analysis  of  this  content  with  particular  reference  to  the  social 
studies. 

I.  Specifications.  There  are  two  general  types  of  specifications: 
(a)  objectives,  and  (b)  material  aids  to  instruction. 

a.  Objectives.  Several  types  of  objectives  and  ways  of  classifying 
them  have  been  recognized  and  discussed  in  preceding  pages.  In  the 
social  studies,  it  seems  that  the  most  helpful  classification  of  objectives 
to  guide  their  formulation  and  use  is: 

I.  Ultimate  objectives — General  in  statement  and  phrased  in  terms 
of  characteristics  of  individuals. 

II.  Immediate  objectives 

A.  General  in  statement  but  in  terms  of 

1.  Specific  habits — mostly  fixed  associations 

2.  Knowledge  outcomes 

3.  General  patterns  of  conduct 

B.  Specific  in  statement 

1.  Definitely  stated  in  so  far  as  possible — largely  in  terms 

of  standards  of  attainment 

2.  Implied  in  subject  outlines41 

Ultimate  objectives  should  be  formulated  first  in  order  to  furnish  a 
guide  to  the  formulation  of  immediate  objectives.  Such  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  development  of  objectives  that  the  statement  of  ulti- 
mate objectives  can  be  fairly  complete.  Somewhat  more  difficult  is  the 
formulation  of  an  adequate  list  of  immediate  objectives.  A  moderately 
comprehensive  list  stated  in  general  terms  can  be  made  without  much 
difficulty,  but  anything  like  a  comprehensive  list  of  detailed  and  explicit 
specific  objectives  in  the  social  studies  is  at  present  unattainable.  Pre- 
sentation of  a  complete  list  of  immediate  objectives  in  terms  of  tasks  to 
be  performed  should  probably  not  be  attempted  in  a  course  of  study. 
Their  formulation  is  a  task  that  may  well  be  left  for  teachers  to  perform 
as  the  learners  progress  under  their  direction. 

Aside  from  being  explicitly  stated,  objectives  are  implied  in  speci- 
fications of  topics  to  be  studied.  In  courses  of  study  it  may  well  be 
considered  that  the  chief  function  served  by  subject  outlines  is  the  de- 
fining of  objectives  by  implication — certain  facts  and  topics  are  to  be 


"The  work  of  determining  objectives  has  not  progressed  sufficiently  to  make  it 
possible  to  give  a  satisfactory  list  of  specific  objectives  in  the  social  studies.  Some  fairly 
adequate  lists  of  personages,  places,  dates,  and  events  are  available,  but  in  large  meas- 
ure the  specific  objectives  must  still  be  implied  by  means  of  outlines  of  subject-matter 
to  be  covered. 

[37] 


known  in  certain  relationships,  the  degrees  of  thoroughness  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  teacher's  judgment. 

The  course  of  study  in  the  social  studies  should  set  forth  the  fol- 
lowing objectives:  first,  in  the  introductory  section,  the  ultimate  ob- 
jectives for  the  social  studies  as  a  whole;  second,  in  the  second  division 
of  the  course  of  study  devoted  to  each  grade  and  subject,  the  immediate 
objectives  for  that  grade  and  subject,  for  example,  for  Community  Civics 
in  the  ninth  grade;  and  third,  following  the  statement  of  immediate 
objectives  should  be  a  subject  outline  for  each  grade  and  subject.  If  a 
subject  is  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  unit  within  the  general  field  of 
the  social  studies  but  is  to  be  developed  throughout  two  or  more  grades, 
say  American  history  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  then  the  imme- 
diate objectives  and  content  may  be  treated  for  these  two  or  more  grades 
as  it  would  otherwise  be  treated  for  one  grade. 

b.  Material  aids  to  instruction.  The  course  of  study  should  specify 
the  material  aids  to  instruction,  such  as  textbooks,  supplementary  books, 
and  other  materials  and  devices  which  are  to  be  used  or  which  are 
available  for  use  if  desired.  Theoretically,  at  least,  the  textbook  for  a 
course  should  not  be  selected  until  after  the  objectives  have  been  form- 
ulated, for  the  choice  of  a  textbook  should  be  largely  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  objectives  set  up.  Actually,  textbooks  are  often  already 
chosen  and  in  use,  so  that  those  who  write  the  course  of  study  have 
merely  to  accept  the  textbooks  and  make  the  best  adjustments  possible. 
Usually,  too,  the  supplementary  books  are  already  in  the  school  library 
and  only  a  few  are  likely  to  be  purchased  on  recommendation  of  the 
course-of-study  committee.  About  the  same  is  true  of  other  materials 
and  devices,  such  as  maps,  globes,  lantern  slides,  models,  and  the  like. 
x\ll  of  these  material  aids  to  instruction  should  be  enumerated  in  the 
course  of  study,  with  discussions  as  to  their  availability  and  use.  Al- 
though such  lists  and  discussions  may  be  presented  in  one  place  for  all 
grades  and  subjects,  it  is  probably  better  to  give  those  most  suitable  for 
a  particular  grade  or  subject  at  the  beginning  of  the  portion  of  the 
course  of  study  devoted  to  that  grade  or  subject.  In  this  way  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  use  of  these  tool  materials  are  in  proximity  to  the  ob- 
jectives and  suggestions  relative  to  instruction  in  each  grade. 

Provisions  for  individual  differences  by  modifying  specifications. 
In  formulating  objectives  and  in  selecting  material  aids  to  instruction, 
consideration  should  be  given  to  provisions  for  individual  differences. 
Two  types  of  modifications  may  be  made:  those  of  a  quantitative  nature 
and  those  that  are  qualitative.    However,  the  two  are  so  intimately  re- 


[58] 


lated  that  it  is  impossible  in  practice  to  make  an  uncompromising  dis- 
tinction between  them.  An  example  from  the  quantitative  point  of 
view  is  the  formulation  of  a  set  of  minimum  essentials  to  which  addi- 
tions may  be  made  for  those  who  are  capable  of  going  beyond  the  bare 
minimum.  From  the  qualitative  point  of  view,  some  topics  may  be 
designated  to  be  studied  more  thoroughly  or  in  a  somewhat  different 
way  by  the  more  capable  pupils.  For  instance,  the  minimum  may  be 
to  know  what  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  System  is,  but  the  more  able 
pupils  may  go  beyond  this  in  comprehending  some  of  the  economic  laws 
underlying  such  a  system.  One  of  the  most  helpful  features  of  courses 
of  study  in  assisting  teachers  with  this  qualitative  aspect  of  specifica- 
tions is  the  guidance  which  is  given  in  selecting  references  suited  to  the 
varying  abilities  of  pupils.  Some  indications  should  be  made  in  the 
grade  lists  as  to  which  reading  materials  are  the  more  difficult  and 
which  are  the  simpler.  Designations  of  this  sort  will  enable  the  teacher 
to  give  the  brighter  pupils  more  difficult  material  and  to  assign  simpler 
reading  to  the  slower  pupils. 

However,  the  provisions  made  for  individual  differences  must  be 
dependent  largely  upon  the  policy  of  the  school  toward  such  provisions. 
Consequently,  they  may  be  elaborate  or  meagre,  for  mixed  classes  or 
for  classes  where  pupils  of  different  abilities  are  segregated,  and  so 
forth.  Most  provisions  for  individual  differences,  especially  when  there 
is  no  attempt  at  homogeneous  grouping,  must  be  made  by  adapting 
learning  exercises  and  methods  of  instruction.  This  is  discussed  on  the 
following  page. 

2.  Suggestions  relative  to  instruction.  It  was  stated  in  preceding 
pages  that  the  introductory  section  of  the  course  of  study  should  contain 
the  discussion  of  general  principles  relative  to  class  instruction  and  that 
the  grade  and  subject  divisions  should  contain  the  more  specific  sugges- 
tions which  apply  especially  to  a  particular  subject,  such  as  lists  of 
standardized  tests  available  for  use  in  American  history.  Three  types 
of  material  of  practical  and  direct  use  to  teachers  of  the  particular  sub- 
jects should  be  presented:  first,  lists  of  effective  and  desirable  learning 
exercises,  such  as  projects  and  problems,  with  directions  and  occasionally 
cautions  for  carrying  out  some  of  the  more  complicated  or  difficult 
exercises;  second,  means  of  motivating  pupil  activity,  such  as  lists  of 
books  that  have  been  found  to  have  a  particularly  strong  appeal  to 
pupils,  or  field  trips  of  especial  interest,  with  some  suggestions  as  to  the 
particular  educational  value  of  some  of  the  suggested  means;  and  third, 
means  of  evaluating  pupil  achievement,  such  as  lists  of  standardized 


[39] 


tests  available  and  difficulties  which  pupils  have,  with  evaluating  pro- 
cedures to  be  used  in  discovering  these  difficulties.  Sometimes  complete 
tests  which  have  been  found  to  be  especially  effective  may  be  given. 

Adaptation  of  teaching  procedures  to  individual  differences.42 
Aside  from  purely  administrative  schemes,  there  are  three  outstanding 
types  of  provisions  for  individual  differences  which  may  be  made:  (1) 
modifications  of  objectives,  (2)  differentiations  in  material  aids  to  in- 
struction, and  (3)  modifications  of  teaching  procedures.  The  modifica- 
tions of  objectives  and  differentiations  in  material  aids  to  instruction 
should  be  indicated  in  the  outline  of  specifications  which  is  given  in  the 
introductory  section  and  at  the  beginning  of  each  grade  section  of  the 
course  of  study.  Modifications  of  teaching  procedures  should  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  grade  sections  of  the  course  of  study. 

It  is  probable  that  the  most  significant  provisions  that  teachers 
make  for  individual  differences  are  in  modifications  of  their  technique 
of  instruction,  rather  than  in  objectives  and  material  aids  to  instruction. 
Individual  differences  probably  enter  to  a  greater  extent  into  the  con- 
tent subjects  than  into  the  drill  subjects,  not  so  much  because  of  the 
nature  of  differences  in  native  individual  capacities  but  because  educa- 
tional objectives  place  emphasis  upon  maximum  development  of  pupil 
ability  in  the  content  subjects  as  contrasted  with  acquisition  of  minimum 
essentials  in  drill  subjects.  For  these  and  other  more  or  less  obvious 
reasons,  it  is  highly  important  that  courses  of  study  in  the  social  studies 
should  make  suggestions  to  teachers  for  modifying  their  technique.  It 
is  better  to  make  these  suggestions  under  the  various  grade  and  subject 
divisions  of  the  course  of  study  rather  than  to  include  all  such  sugges- 
tions under  one  heading  in  the  introduction. 

3.  References  for  the  teacher.  The  course  of  study  in  the  social 
studies  should  have  appended  a  few  references  that  in  the  opinion  of 
the  course-of-study  makers  will  be  of  most  value  to  teachers  of  social 
studies.  This  list  should  not  be  an  extended  bibliography,  but  should 
contain  selected  references  that  will  be  of  immediate  value  to  the  class- 
room teacher.  Each  reference  should  be  annotated  in  order  that  the  list 
will  be  readily  usable. 

Such  a  bibliography  should  include  titles  covering  the  more  impor- 
tant phases  of  at  least  the  following:  (1)  methods  of  teaching  the  social 


42Sec: 

Herriott,  M.  E.  "Modifying  technique  of  instruction  for  gifted  children."  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  18,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular 
No.  41.    Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1926.    20  p. 


[40  1 


studies,  (2)  standards  of  attainment  in  the  social  studies,  and  (3)  test- 
ing and  remedial  instruction  in  the  social  studies.  In  addition  to  refer- 
ences on  these  phases  of  instruction,  a  few  educational  journals  that 
frequently  contain  articles  on  the  teaching  of  social  studies  should  be 
listed.  Also,  it  is  well  to  refer  to  a  few  of  the  better  courses  of  study 
"with  brief  comments  on  what  is  of  most  worth  in  each. 


[  41  J 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
SELECTED  AND  ANNOTATED 

Introductory  statement.  The  following  references  have  been  selected 
because  of  their  pertinence  to  the  work  of  those  who  make  courses  of 
study  in  the  social  studies.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  all 
possible  references;  in  fact,  so  many  of  the  references  included  are  of  a 
summary  nature  and  include  excellent  bibliographies  that  the  list  has 
been  limited.  The  following  divisions  are  made:  first,  general  references 
on  curriculum  and  course  of  study  making;  second,  books  and  articles 
on  methods  of  teaching;  third,  courses  of  study  in  the  social  studies; 
fourth,  references  on  testing  and  standards  of  achievement  in  the  social 
studies;  and  fifth,  reports  of  investigations  and  miscellaneous  references. 

1.    GENERAL   REFERENCES  ON   CURRICULUM   AND 
COURSE  OF  STUDY  MAKING 

Bobbitt,  Franklin.  How  to  Make  a  Curriculum.  Boston:  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1924,  p.  1-75. 

This  is  a  report  of  the  work  on  revising  the  curriculum  in  Los  Angeles  which  Dr. 
Bobbitt  directed  over  a  period  of  two  years. 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.  "Types  and  principles  of  curricular  development/' 
Teachers  College  Record,  24:326-37,  September,  1923. 
Address  delivered  at  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  at  Cleveland,  February  28,  1923.  Outlines  the  methods 
and  results  of  two  types  of  curricular  investigations  and  states  certain  principles  for 
use  in  reorganizing  school  subjects. 

Charters,  W.  W.    Curriculum  Construction.    New  York:    The  Mac- 

millan  Company,  1923,  p.  3-168. 

This  portion  of  the  book  gives  a  good  background  theory  of  curriculum  construc- 
tion and  presents  Charters'  point  of  view. 

Clement,  John  Addison.    Curriculum  Making  in  Secondary  Schools. 

New  York:    Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1923.   534  p. 

This  is  a  collection  of  "some  of  the  principles,  problems  and  practices  bearing  upon 
the  business  of  curriculum  making  in  secondary  education." 

Counts,  Geo.  S.  "The  senior  high  school  curriculum."  Supplementary 
Educational  Monographs,  No.  29.  Chicago:  University  of  Chicago, 
1926.    160  p. 

This  is  a  report  of  a  survey  of  curriculum  practices  in  fifteen  city  senior  high 
schools. 

[42] 


Cox,  Philip  W.  L.    Curriculum-Adjustment  in  the  Secondary  School. 

Philadelphia:    J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  1925.    306  p. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  many  new  publications  on  the  secondary-school  cur- 
riculum. The  author  states  the  present  situation,  examines  the  scientific  basis  of  the 
curriculum,  and  finally  adduces  principles  for  the  guidance  of  curriculum  adjustment. 

Glass,  James  M.   "Curriculum  practices  in  the  junior  high  school  and 
grades    five    and    six."    Supplementary    Educational    Monographs, 
No.  25.   Chicago:   University  of  Chicago,  1924.    181  p. 
This  is  a  report  of  a  survey  of  curriculum  practices  in  fourteen  municipal  school 

systems. 

McMurry,  Charles  A.  How  to  Organize  the  Curriculum.  New  York: 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1923.   358  p. 

The  curriculum  is  discussed  in  terms  of  projects,  type  studies,  and  large  units  of 
study.  A  suggested  curriculum  of  large  teaching  units  is  given,  covering  the  fields  of 
geography,  history,  science,  and  literature. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.   "Making  a  course  of  study."  University  of  Illinois 
Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  2,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular 
No.  35.   Urbana:    University  of  Illinois,  1925.   35  p. 
This  circular  presents  the  best  present-day  ideas  on  general  make-up  of  courses  of 

study,  the  way  to  go  about  making  a  course  of  study,  and  the  benefits  to  be  derived 

from  such  work.     A  lengthy  bibliography  on  curriculum  and  course-of-study  making  is 

included. 

Threlkeld,  A.  L.  "Curriculum  revision:  how  a  particular  city  may 
attack  the  problem,"  Elementary  School  Journal,  25:573-82,  April, 
1925. 

This  is  a  report  of  the  method  of  attack  used  in  Denver,  Colorado. 
Wilson,  H.  B.  "The  course  of  study  in  the  work  of  the  modern  school." 

Course  of  Study  Monographs,  Introductory.    Berkeley,  California: 

Board  of  Education,  1921.    14  p. 

"Introductory  to  all  (Berkeley)  Courses  of  Study  presenting  the  general  point 
of  view  which  has  guided  the  formulation  of  the  detailed  courses  in  all  subjects  for  the 
various  schools."    (Introductory  note.) 

"Cardinal  principles  of  secondary  education."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion Bulletin,  1918,  No.  35.   Washington,  1918.    32  p. 

This  is  a  classic  report  with  which  all  should  be  familiar. 
"The  elementary  school  curriculum."   Second  Yearbook  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Superintendence.    Washington:     Department  of  Superin- 
tendence of  the  National  Education  Association,  1924.    269  p. 
The  elementary  curriculum  situation  in  the  United  States  in  1923  is  well  described. 
"Facts  on  the  public  school  curriculum."    Research  Bulletin  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  Vol.  I,  No.  5.  Washington:    Research 
Division  of  the  National  Education  Association,  1923,  p.  310-50. 
This  bulletin  furnishes  good  source  material  on  time  allotments,  statutory  require- 
ments, grade  combinations  of  subjects,  and  other  pertinent  matters.     A  list  of  courses 
of  study  published  in  1920  is  valuable. 

[43] 


"Keeping  pace  with  the  advancing  curriculum."  Research  Bulletin  of 
the  National  Education  Association,  Vol.  3,  Nos.  4  and  5.  Wash- 
ington: Research  Division  of  the  National  Education  Association, 

1925,  p.  107-92. 

This  bulletin  makes  an  intensive  survey  of  the  curriculum  advances  that  are  being 
made  in  the  United  States.  It  is  crowded  with  facts  and  helpful  suggestions.  A  list  of 
889  courses  of  study  published  between  January  1,  1923,  and  November,  1925,  is  very 
useful. 

"The  nation  at  work  on  the  public  school  curriculum."  Fourth  Year- 
book of  the  Department  of  Superintendence.  Washington:  Depart- 
ment of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education  Association, 

1926.  520  p. 

The  major  portion  of  this  yearbook  is  made  up  of  reports  of  national  subject  com- 
mittees which  discuss  research  studies  that  have  been  made  and  methods  of  procedure 
in  curriculum  revision.  However,  there  are  two  introductory  sections  dealing  with  cur- 
riculum reconstruction  in  general. 

"Research  in  constructing  the  elementary  school  curriculum."  Third 
Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence.  Washington: 
Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion, 1925.  424  p. 

This  yearbook  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the  research  studies  that  have  been  made  in 
the  various  school  subjects.  There  is  a  discussion  in  two  introductory  sections  of  a  co- 
operative plan  for  the  revision  of  the  American  elementary  school  curriculum  and  vari- 
ations in  curricula  to  meet  community  and  individual  needs. 

2.    METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
Almack,  John  C.    Education  for  Citizenship.    Boston:  Houghton  Mif- 
flin Company,  1924.   287  p. 

The  following  phases  of  citizenship  training  are  discussed:  the  civic  basis  of  school 
organization,  the  teaching  of  civic  materials,  and  integration  of  the  school  and  the  com- 
munity. 

Bourne,  Henry  E.  The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics  in  the  Elemen- 
tary and  the  Secondary  School.  New  York:   Longmans,  Green,  and 
Company,  1902.   385  p. 
This  is  a  standard  work  that  was  revised  in   1910.     Somewhat  out  of  date  but 

still  very  helpful. 

Branom,  Mendel  E.,  and  Branom,  Fred  K.    The  Teaching  of  Geog- 
raphy.   Boston:    Ginn  and  Company,  1921.   292  p. 
The  teaching  of  geography  by  the  "project,  or  active,  method"  is  well  presented. 

Dawson,  Edgar.   Teaching  the  Social  Studies.    New  York:    The  Mac- 

millan  Company,  1926. 

The  most  recent  book  by  an  author  who  has  given  much  thought  to  the  subject. 
Not  yet  off  the  press  but  should  be  soon. 

[44] 


Dodge,  Richard  Elwood,  and  Kirchwey,  Clara  Barbara.  The  Teach- 
ing of  Geography  in  Elementary  Schools.  Chicago:   Rand  McNally 
and  Company,  1913.   248  p. 
This   is   a   book  of  practical   considerations.     The  authors   call   attention   to  the 

double  point  of  view,  "that  we  are  teaching  children  geography  .  .  .  and  also  that  we 

are  teaching  geography  to  children." 

Herriott,  M.  E.  "Modifying  technique  of  instruction  for  gifted  chil- 
dren." University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol  23,  No.  18,  Bureau  of 
Educational  Research  Circular  No.  41.  Urbana:  University  of 
Illinois,  1926.    17  p. 

Six  modifications  of  learning  exercises  and  three  modifications  in  the  directing  of 
the  doing  of  learning  exercises  are  given  as  a  result  of  considering  the  factors  involved 
in  modifying  technique  of  instruction. 

Klapper,  Paul.    The  Teaching  of  History.    New  York:    D.  Appleton 

and  Company,  1926.  348  p. 

This  is  one  of  the  mere  recent  books  on  the  teaching  of  history  in  the  elementary 
and  junior-high  schools.  It  also  includes  the  teaching  of  civics.  Part  I  consists  of  one 
chapter  on  the  meaning  of  history;  Part  II  contains  nine  chapters  devoted  to  a  dis- 
cussion of  how  to  attain  the  values  of  history;  Part  III  is  composed  of  three  chapters 
in  which  the  content  of  history  through  the  ninth  year  is  discussed;  Part  IV  has  four 
chapters  on  methods  of  teaching  history;  and  Part  V  is  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  civics. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "Types  of  learning  required  of  pupils  in  the  sev- 
enth and  eighth  grades  and  in  the  high  school."  University  of  Illi- 
nois Bulletin,  Vol.  19,  No.  15,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Bulletin  No.  7.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1921.  16  p. 
Twelve  types  of  textbook  study,  or  purposes  for  which  pupils  read,  are  distin- 
guished. Teachers'  opinions  as  to  the  prevalence  in  various  school  subjects  and  the  rel- 
ative difficulties  of  these  various  types  of  study  are  reported. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Mohlman,  Dora  Keen.  "Errors  made  by 
high-school  students  in  one  type  of  textbook  study,"  School  Re- 
view, 31:36-47,  January,  1923. 

This  article  presents  an  analysis  of  the  causes  of  errors  made  by  a  group  of  high- 
school  students  in  studying  for  "comprehension  of  material  read  plus  memorization  so 
that  it  can  be  reproduced."     Remedial  measures  are  suggested. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.   "Projects  and  the  project  method."   University  of 
Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  30,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Circular  No.  43.  Urbana:    University  of  Illinois,  1926.   20  p. 
This  is  a  critical  study  of  the  project  method  which  might  well  have  been  given 

the  descriptive  title:  "The  project  vs.  the  assignment  method — an  evaluation." 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "The  assignment  of  lessons."  University  of  Illinois 
Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  7,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular 
No.  38.   Urbana:    University  of  Illinois,  1925.   20  p. 
The  following  are  discussed:  function  and  importance  of  the  assignment,  when  to 
make   the   assignment,   planning  the  assignment,   goals   of  the   assignment,    motivating 
pupils'  study,  statement  of  work  to  be  covered,  directing  pupils  in  their  study,  and  mis- 
cellaneous suggestions. 

[45] 


Tryon,  Rolla  Milton.  Teaching  of  History  in  Junior  and  Senior  High 
Schools.   Boston:    Ginn  and  Company,  1921.    294  p. 
This  is  probably  the  best  recent  book  on  the  teaching  of  history. 

Weatherly,  Mrs.  Josephine.  "The  correlation  of  history  and  litera- 
ture," Teaching,  No.  53,  p.  12-16,  October,  1920. 

The  major  contribution  of  this  article  is  an  excellent  list  of  literature  books  on 
historical  subjects,  such  as  Ebers,  An  Egyptian  Princess. 

Wilgus,  A.  Curtis.    "Maps  and  history  instruction,"  The  High  School 

Quarterly,  12:245-50,  July,  1924. 

Enumerates  types  of  maps  and  ways  of  having  them  made  by  pupils.  Some  of 
their  uses  are  indicated. 

Woellner,  Frederic  P.    Education  for  Citizenship  in  a  Democracy. 

New  York:    Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1923.   252  p. 

The  present-day  point  of  view  toward  civics,  sociology,  economics,  ethics,  and 
Americanization  is  well  presented  here. 

Committee  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical  Association.   "Standard- 
izing library  work  and  library  equipment  for  history  in  secondary 
schools,"  School  Review,  29:135-50,  February,  1921. 
Lists  of  books  that,  have  been  found  valuable  for  intensive  and  extensive  reading 

in  American  and  European  history  are  given  and  recommendations  made. 

3.    COURSES  OF  STUDY 

Pierce,  Bessie  L.  "Courses  in  the  social  studies  for  junior  high  schools." 
College  of  Education  Series,  No.  1.  University  of  Iowa  Extension 
Bulletin,  No.  97.   Iowa  City:    University  of  Iowa,  1923. 

Although  the  writer  has  not  seen  this  bulletin  it  should  be  similar  to  the  ones  de- 
scribed just  below. 

Pierce,  Bessie  Louise,  and  Sharpe,  Eloise.    "Courses  in  the  social 

studies  for  senior  high  schools."    College  of  Education  Series,  Nos. 

8,  9,  and  10.   University  of  Iowa  Extension  Bulletin,  Xos.  118,  119, 

and  120.  Iowa  City:  University  of  Iowa,  1925.   102,  174,  and  122  p. 

These  bulletins  are  not  courses  of  study,  properly  speaking,  but  are  syllabi  worked 
out  in  great  detail.  These  syllabi  are  for  the  social  studies  in  the  University  High 
School  of  the  University  of  Iowa.   The  courses  are  organized  on  the  cycle  plan. 

"The  course  in  history,"  Francis  W.  Parker  School  Studies  in  Educa- 
tion, Social  Science  Series,  Vol.  7.  Chicago:  Francis  W.  Parker 
School,  1923.    196  p. 

The  point  of  view  of  the  Francis  W.  Parker  School  is  admirably  presented  with 
many  illustrations  of  the  work  done.  The  course  in  history  is  discussed  from  the  first 
grade  through  the  high  school. 

The  following  references  are  not  individually  annotated  because  it  can 
hardly  be  said  that  any  one  of  them  makes  an  outstanding  contri- 
bution. However,  all  are  representative  of  the  better  practices  in 
course-of-study  making.  The  usual  bibliographical  form  is  not  used, 
the  courses  of  study  for  each  school  system  being  grouped  together. 

[46] 


Baltimore,  Maryland:    Warwick  and  York. 

"Course   of  study,   public   schools,   Baltimore   County,  Maryland, 

Grades  I-VHI,"  1921,  p.  158-88,  189-216,  412-72,  473-576,  577-92. 
Baltimore,  Maryland:    Board  of  Education. 

"Geography-history-arithmetic,   course   of   study   for   kindergarten 

and  grades  one,  two,  and  three,"  1924.   78  p. 

"Geography,  course  of  study  for  grades  four,  five,  and  six,"  1924. 

74  p. 

"History,  course  of  study  for  grades  four,  five,  and  six,"  1924.  103  p. 

"The   social   studies,  course  of  study  for  senior   and  junior  high 

schools,"  1925.  577  p. 
Berkeley,  California:    Board  of  Education. 

"English,  history,  science,  mathematics,  foreign  languages — course 

of  study  monographs  for  Junior  High  Schools,  Number   1,   1922. 

132  p. 
Cleveland,  Ohio:    Board  of  Education. 

"Course  of  study  in  geography — grades   three  to  six,   inclusive," 

1925.  240  p. 
Lawrence,  Kansas:    Board  of  Education. 

"Geography,    course    of    study,    elementary    schools."    (Xo    date 

given.)    66  p.    (Mimeographed.) 
"Social  study  syllabus,  secondary  schools,"  1924.     (Not  paged  consec- 
utively.)   .(Mimeographed.) 
Los  Angeles,  California:    Board  of  Education. 

"Course  of  study,  fifth  and  sixth  grades,"  1924.   335  p. 

"Social  studies,  course  of  study  monographs,  No.  23,"  1923.    176  p. 
Trenton,  New  Jersey:    Board  of  Education. 

"History,  elementary  course  of  study,"  1923.    139  p. 

"Civics,  elementary  course  of  study,"  1922.    89  p. 

"Geography,  report  of  committee  on  elementary  course  of  study," 

1924.  28  p. 

"Geography,  elementary  course  of  study,"  1922.    94  p. 

"History,  secondary  course  of  study,  grades  seven  and  eight,"  1924. 

76  p. 

"American  history,  secondary  course  of  study,"  1923.   72  p. 

"Early  European  history,  secondary  course  of  study,  grade  ten," 

1924.  98  p. 

"Modern    European    history,    secondary    course    of    study,    grade 

eleven,"  1924.  65  p. 

"Geography  and  science,  secondary  course  of  study,"  1923.    100  p. 


[47] 


4.    TESTING  AND  STANDARDS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 
Doherty,  Margaret,  and  MacLatchy,  Josephine.     "Bibliography  of 
educational    and    psychological    tests    and    measurements."     U.    S. 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,   1923,  No.  55.    Washington,   1924. 
233  p. 

This  bibliography  gives  not  only  a  list  of  the  tests  but  a  rather  complete  list  of 
references  that  discuss  the  particular  tests,  the  use  of  tests  in  general  and  the  uses  of 
tests  according  to  types  of  schools. 

Monroe,  Walter  Scott,  DeYoss,  James  Clarence,  and  Kelly,  Fred- 
erick James.  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements.  (Revised 
Edition).  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1924,  p.  272-96, 
417-30,  469-86. 

The  structure,  uses  and  iimitations  of  most  of  the  standardized  tests  in  geography 
and  history  are  discussed  in  the  sections  referred  to.  The  general  theory  of  testing  is 
discussed  and  practical  suggestions  made.  An  excellent  bibliography  on  testing  in  geog- 
raphy and  history  is  given  on  pages  294-96. 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "Educational  tests  for  use  in  elementary  schools, 
revised."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  16,  Bureau  of 
Educational  Research  Circular  Xo.  33.  Urbana:  University  of  Illi- 
nois, 1924.  22  p. 

An  annotated  bibliography  of  tests  that  are  now  available.  'Tests  that  are  known 
to  be  distinctly  unsatisfactory  are  omitted."  Norms  are  available  for  most  of  the  tests 
listed.  The  bibliography  is  preceded  by  a  brief  discussion  of  the  characteristics  and 
use  of  tests. 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "Educational  tests  for  use  in  high  schools,  revised." 
University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  37,  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tional Research  Circular  Xo.  34.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois, 
1925.    19  p. 

This  circular  does  much  the  same  for  high  schools  that  the  preceding  circular  does 
for  elementary  schools. 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "Objective  measurement  of  information."  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  36,  Bureau  of  Educational  Re- 
search Circular  No.  44.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1926.  27  p. 
This  circular  presents  a  brief  discussion  of  the  so-called  '"'new  examination"  and 

its  use.     Examples  of  fifteen  types  and  numerous  sub-types  of  the  "new  examination" 

are  given  along  with  a  brief  discussion  of  the  use  of  each. 

Bureau  of  Cooperative  Research,  Indiana  University   (Compiled  by). 

"First  revision  of  bibliography  of  educational  measurements."  Bul- 
letin of  the  School  of  Education,  Vol.  1,  No.  5.  Bloomington,  In- 
diana:   Indiana  University,  1925.    147  p. 

''This  bibliography  is  compiled  for  the  double  purpose  of  listing  all  efforts,  so  far 
as  they  have  come  to  our  attention,  which  have  been  made  in  the  United  States  to  de- 
velop achievement  tests,  and  of  giving  a  brief  description  of  each  test,  including  in  the 
description  not  only  an  analysis  of  the  test  and  its  purpose,  but  also  available  infor- 

[48] 


mation  concerning  the  range  of  the  test,  administration  cost  of  the  test  in  money  and 
in  time,  information  as  to  the  time  of  year  in  which  it  was  standardized,  the  publisher 
of  the  tests,  and  the  date  of  publication."     (From  foreword  of  first  edition.) 

5.    REPORTS  OF  INVESTIGATIONS  AND  MISCELLANEOUS 
REFERENCES 

Barnard,  J.  Lynn,  Carrier,  F.  W.,  Dunn,  Arthur  William,  and 
Kingsley,  Clarence  D.  "The  teaching  of  community  civics."  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Educational  Bulletin,  1915,  No.  23.  Washington,  1915. 
55  p.' 

This  bulletin  laid  the  foundation  for  much  of  what  is  being  done  at  present  in 
community  civics.  It  should  be  read  by  those  who  wish  to  understand  the  develop- 
ments since  1915. 

Dawson,  Edgar  (Edited  by)^_J!Dutlines  of  Responsible  Government." 

New  York:    The  National  Municipal  League. 

This  is  only  one  of  several  publications  dealing  with  governmental  subjects.  They 
are  intended  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  teachers  in  teaching  the  principles  of  organi- 
zation which  have  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  hypothesis. 

Dawson,  Edgar.   "The  social  studies  in  civic  education."   U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin,  1923,  No.  23.   Washington,  1923.    16  p. 
A  good  resume  of  the  present  situation  of  the  social  studies. 

Dunn,  Arthur  William  (Compiled  by).  "The  social  studies  in  sec- 
ondary education."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1916,  No. 
28.  Washington,  1916.   63  p. 

This  is  the  report  of  the  committee  on  social  studies  of  the  Commission  on  the 
Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  of  the  National  Education  Association. 

Gambrill,  J.  Montgomery.  "Experimental  curriculum-making  in  the 
social  studies."  The  Historical  Outlook,  14:384-406,  December, 
1923;  15:37-55,  January,  1924. 

This  is  a  report  of  an  investigation  of  several  experimental  curricula  in  the  social 
studies.    The  salient  points  of  each  are  well  discussed. 

Good,  Carter  V.  "An  experimental  study  of  the  merits  of  extensive 
and  intensive  reading  in  the  social  sciences,"  School  and  Society, 
22:758-60,  December  12,  1925. 

Methods  of  and  conclusions  from  an  experiment  at  the  University  of  Chicago  are 
reported. 

Hughes,  R.  O.  "Recent  tests  in  the  social  studies,"  The  Historical  Out- 
look, 14:373-76,' December,  1923. 

The  compiler  endeavored  to  include  every  textbook  for  general  use  in  the  social 
studies  (history,  civics,  sociology,  and  economics)  in  the  junior  and  senior  high  school 
which  was  published  between  1916  and  1923.  Approximately  100  titles  are  listed.  The 
school  grade  for  which  each  text  is  intended  is  given  along  with  a  brief  annotation. 


[49] 


Kimball,  Reginald  Stevens.  "A  selected  bibliography  of  works  help- 
ful in  teaching  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,"  The  Histori- 
cal Outlook,  16:211-16,  May,  1925. 

The  list  includes  approximately  200  briefly  annotated  titles  classified  as  follows: 
A — For  teachers'  reference 
B — Source  material 
C — Popular  treatments 
D — 1.  Advanced  texts 

2.  Secondary  texts 

3.  Elementary  texts 
E — For  pupils'  reference 
F — Constitutional  law 

Monroe,   Walter    S.     "Teachers'   Objectives."    University    of    Illinois 
Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  39,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Circular 
No.  45.   Urbana:   University  of  Illinois,  1926.   28  p. 
This  is  a  thoughtful  discussion  of  the  objectives  of  education,  particularly  of  the 
immediate  objectives  of  instruction.     There  is  a  succinct  discussion  of  the  lack  of  har- 
mony between  the  objectives  expressed  by  teachers  and  the  objectives  implied  by  the 
learning  exercises  which  they  have  pupils  do. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Foster,  I.  0.  "The  status  of  the  social  sci- 
ences in  the  high  schools  of  the  North  Central  Association."  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  20,  No.  18,  Bureau  of  Educational 
Research  Bulletin  No.  13.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1923. 
38  p. 

The  title  is  sufficiently  descriptive. 
Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Herriott,  M.  E.   "Objectives  of  United  States 

history  in  grades  seven  and  eight."    University  of  Illinois  Bulletin, 

Vol.  23,  No.  3,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  33. 

Urbana:    University  of  Illinois,  1926.   68  pp. 

The  dates,  events,  personages,  and  miscellaneous  facts  in  United  States  history 
which  the  elementary  teachers  of  Champaign  and  Piatt  counties.  Illinois,  think  pupils 
should  know  on  completion  of  the  eighth  grade  are  compared  with  some  current  prac- 
tices and  the  results  of  other  investigations.  A  study  of  thought  questions  in  United 
States  history  is  reported. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Johnston,  Nell  Bomar.  "Reporting  educa- 
tional research."  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22,  No.  38, 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  25.  Urbana:  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  1925.   63  p. 

Most  of  the  principles  relating  to  the  reporting  of  educational  research  are  ap- 
plicable to  the  writing  of  a  course  of  study.  This  bulletin  will  be  of  real  assistance  to 
the  one  who  does  the  actual  writing  of  a  course  of  study. 

Robinson,  James  Harvey.   The  New  History.    New  York:    The  Mac- 

millan  Company,  1912.    266  p. 

This  is  a  collection  of  essays  illustrating  a  modern  tendency  in  point  of  view  toward 
history  and  history  teaching.     It  is  a  classic  of  such  literature. 

[50] 


Shiels,  Albert.  "The  social  studies  in  development,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege Record,  23:126-45,  March,  1922. 

An  excellent  resume  of  the  development  of  the  teaching  of  the  social  studies  in 
the  elementary  and  secondary  school,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  reports  of  commit- 
tees and  tendencies  evidenced  in  them. 

Shryock,  Richard  H.  "An  analytical  and  descriptive  guide  to  the 
materials  in  the  History  Teacher's  Magazine  and  the  Historical 
Outlook,  Vol.  I  to  XVI,  1909-1925,"  The  Historical  Outlook,  16: 
355-94,  December,  1925. 

For  those  who  have  access  to  The  Historical  Outlook  this  is  an  excellent  guide. 

Department  of  History,  University  of  Iowa  (Compiled  and  annotated 
by).  "Great  Charters  of  Americanism."  University  of  Iowa  Ex- 
tension Division  Bulletin  No.  60.  Iowa  City:  University  of  Iowa, 
1920.    120  p. 

Contains  ten  documents,  from  the  Mayflower  Pact  to  the  Covenant  of  the  League 
of  Nations,  illustrating  the  progress  of  the  American  people  toward  greater  liberty  and 
self-government.     Valuable  bibliographies  included. 

"Books  for  historical  reading  in  schools,"  The  Historical  Outlook,  15: 
306-13,  October,  1924. 

This  is  a  list  for  outside  reading  and  includes  recent  books  not  yet  tested  and 
novels  as  well  as  ten  best  books  in  each  of  the  following  fields  of  history:  Ancient, 
European,  English,  and  American. 

"List  of  references  on  education  for  citizenship."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Library  Leaflet  No.  30.   Washington,  1925.    16  p. 

The  list  includes  references  on  training  for  citizenship  in  general  as  well  as  refer- 
ences on  the  problems  of  government.     Both  book  and  periodical  references  are  given. 

"New  materials  of  instruction."  Nineteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois: 
Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1920,  p.  69-82,  156-74. 

The  chapters  referred  to  have  the  following  titles:  "A  book  of  local  history," 
"Lessons  in  local  history  and  geography."  and  "Community  life." 

"Studies  in  Secondary  Education,  I."   Supplementary  Educational  Mon- 
ographs, No.  24,  Chicago:  University  of  Chicago,  1923,  p.  88-115. 
The  pages  referred  to  are  three  divisions  of  the  monograph  as  follows:  Hill,  How- 
ard Copeland — "A  two-year  sequence  in  high-school  history";  Barnard,  Arthur  Fairchild 
— "Survey  of  Civilization";  and  Hill,  Howard  Copeland — "A  course  in  modern  history." 

"Studies  in  Secondary  Education,  II."  Supplementary  Educational  Mon- 
ographs, No.  26.  Chicago:  Lmiversity  of  Chicago,  1925,  p.  137-59. 
The  pages  referred  to  are  two  divisions  of  the  monograph  written  by  Howard  C. 

Hill  and  Mildred  Janovsky  Wiese,  respectively,  entitled,   "Experiments  with  advanced 

courses  in  social  science  for  high-school  seniors,"  and  "The  worker  in  modern  societv:  a 

new  social  science  course." 

[51  J 


"The  social  studies  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  school."  Twenty- 
Second  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion, Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Com- 
pany, 1923.    343  p. 

This  is  the  most  comprehensive  collection  of  material  relative  to  the  organization 
of  courses  and  curriculum  making  in  the  social  studies  that  has  been  made. 

"The  teaching  of  citizenship  in  the  elementary  school."  Maryland  School 
Bulletin,  Vol.  8,  No.  1.  Baltimore,  Maryland:  State  Department 
of  Education,  1926.   272  p. 

This  bulletin  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Part  One  is  a  somewhat  theoretical  dis- 
cussion of  the  nature  of  good  citizenship  and  the  training  of  citizens  in  school.  Part  Two 
is  made  up  of  concrete  examples  of  civic  training  submitted  by  teachers  of  Maryland. 

The  Chronicles  of  America  Photoplays.  New  Haven:  Yale  Univer- 
sity Press  Film  Service.    64  p. 

A  description  of  the  Chronicles  of  America  Photoplays  for  school  use.  It  is  free 
for  the  asking. 

On  minimum  essentials:  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I;  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  Part  I; 
Seventeenth  Yearbook,  Part  I;  and  Eighteenth  Yearbook.  Part  II. 
Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1915, 
1917,  1918,  1919. 

These  are  reports  on  economy  of  time  and  minimum  essentials  in  elementary 
school  subjects.  The  discussions  furnish  a  background  for  such  provisions  in  courses 
of  study.     Some  concrete  material  and  suggestions  are  also  provided. 


fHE 


[52] 


